مواد ڏانھن هلو

گڏيل بادشاھت

ڳنڍڻن کي سنواريو
بيھڪ: 55°N 3°W / 55°N 3°W / 55; -3
کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
(گڏيل بادشاهت کان چوريل)
عظيم برطانيا ۽ اتر آئرلينڊ جي گڏيل بادشاھت

A flag composed of a red cross edged in white and superimposed on a red saltire, also edged in white, superimposed on a white saltire on a blue background
جھنڊو
ترانو: "God Save the King

"خدا بادشاهه کي سلامت رکي"

"[lower-alpha 1]
ڪوٽ آف آرمز

اسڪاٽ لينڊ جي حوالي سان استعمال ڪيو ويو (ساڄي)، سڄي دنيا لاء (کاٻي)
اسڪاٽش، آئرش، گيلڪ.
گادي جو هنڌ لنڊن
51°30′N 0°7′W / 51.500°N 0.117°W / 51.500; -0.117
سڀ کان وڏو شهر گادي جو شھر
قومي ٻولي
علائقائي ۽ اقليتي ٻوليون [lower-alpha 2]
  • اسڪاٽس
  • السٽر اسڪاٽس ٻولي
  • ويلش ٻولي
  • ڪارنيش ٻولي
  • اسڪاٽش گيلڪ ٻولي
  • آئرستاني
  • برطانوي نشاني ٻولي
نسلي گروھ (2021/22) • 83.0٪ گورا
  • 8.6٪ ايشيائي
  • 3.7٪ ڪارا
  • 2.7٪ مخلوط
  • 2.0٪ ٻيا
مذهب (2021/22) • 46.5٪ عيسائيت
  • 37.8٪ ڪوبه مذهب ناهي
  • 6.0% اسلام
  • 1.6٪ هندومت
  • 0.8٪ سک مذھب
  • 0.4٪ ٻڌمت
  • 0.4٪ يهوديت
  • 0.6٪ ٻيا
  • 5.9٪ بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي
مقامي آبادي • انگريز
  • برٽ (ڳالهائيندڙ) (برطانوي)
  • برطانوي (هندستاني برطانوي)
  • پوم (آسٽريلين سلینگ)
حڪومت وحداني پارلياماني آئيني بادشاهت[lower-alpha 3] parliamentary constitutional monarchy
• بادشاهہ
 شاھہ چارلس ٽیون
• وزير اعظم
 ڪئير اسٽارمر
مقننه پارليامينٽ
هائوس آف لارڊز
هائوس آف ڪامنز
Formation
• ويلز ايڪٽس ۾ قانون
 1535ع ۽ 1542ع
• تاج جو اتحاد
 24 مارچ 1603ع
• يونين جو معاهدو
 22 جولاءِ 1706ع
• ايڪٽس آف يونين آف انگلينڊ ۽ اسڪاٽلينڊ
 1 مئي 1707ع
• برطانيه ۽ آئرلينڊ جي يونين جو عمل
 1 جنوري 1801ع
• آئرش آزاد رياست آئيني ايڪٽ
 6 ڊسمبر 1922ع
پکيڙ
• Total[lower-alpha 5]
 244٬376 km2 (94٬354 sq mi)[7] (ڪل: * 2,44,376 چورس ڪلوميٽر * 94,354 چورس ميل (78هون) • زمين: *2,42,741 چورس ڪلوميٽر * 93,723 چورس ميل)
242٬741 km2 (93٬723 sq mi)[7]
آبادي
• 2022 اندازو
 سانچو:IncreaseNeutral 67,596,281[8] (6,75,96,281 22 هون 6,69,40,559)
• 2021/22 مردم شماري
 66,940,559[lower-alpha 6][9][10][11]
•  گھاٽائي
 279 /km2 (722.6 /sq mi)[8] (279 فی چورس ڪلوميٽر 722.6 فی اسڪوائر ميل 51هون)
جِي ڊي پي (مساوي قوت خريد ) 2024 لڳ ڀڳ
• ڪل
 4.029 ٽريلين آمريڪي ڊالر[12] (9ھون)
• في سيڪڙو
 58,880 آمريڪي ڊالر[12] (27ھون)
جِي. ڊي. پي  (رڳو نالي ۾ ) 2024 لڳ ڀڳ
• ڪل
 3.495 ٽريلين آمريڪي ڊالر [12] (6ھون)

گڏيل بادشاھت (United Kingdom) يا "عظيم برطانيا ۽ اتر آئرلينڊ جي گڏيل بادشاھت" (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)، جنھن کي عام طور تي برطانيا (Britain) جي طور تي ڄاتو ويندو آھي، اتر۔اولھہ يورپ جو ھڪ ملڪ آھي.[21] گڏيل بادشاهت ۾ برطانيه جو ٻيٽ، آئرلينڊ جي ٻيٽ جو اتر۔اوڀر حصو ۽ برطانوي ٻيٽن جي اندر ننڍا ننڍا ٻيٽ شامل آھن. [22][23] اتر آئرلينڊ آئرلينڊ جي جمهوريه سان هڪ زميني سرحد حصيداري ڪري ٿو؛ ٻي صورت ۾، برطانيه ائٽلانٽڪ سمنڊ، اتر سمنڊ، انگلش چينل، سيلٽڪ سمنڊ، ۽ آئرش سمنڊ سان گھريل آهي. برطانيه جي ڪل ايراضي 94,354 چورس ميل (2,44,376 چورس ڪلوميٽر) آهي، جيڪا 2022ع ۾ لڳ ڀڳ ڇهه ڪروڙ ستر لک (67.6 ملين) ماڻهن جي اندازي مطابق آهي. برطانيه جي گاديءَ جو ھنڌ ۽ وڏو شهر (انهي سان گڏ انگلينڊ جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ) لنڊن آهي، جنهن جو وسيع ميٽروپوليٽن علائقو مغربي يورپ ۾ سڀ کان وڏو آهي، جنهن جي آبادي هڪ ڪروڙ چاليهه لک (14.9 ملين) آهي.[24] ايڊنبرگ، ڪارڊف ۽ بيلفاسٽ جا شهر بالترتيب اسڪاٽ لينڊ، ويلز ۽ اتر آئرلينڊ جا قومي راڄڌاني آهن. ٻين وڏن شهرن ۾ برمنگھم، مانچسٽر، گلاسگو، برسٽول، ليورپول، شيفيلڊ، نيو ڪاسل ۽ ليڊز شامل آھن.

سال 1707ع ۾، برطانيه جي سلطنت (جنهن ۾ ويلز شامل هئا) ۽ اسڪاٽلينڊ جي بادشاهت يونين جي معاهدي تحت متحد ٿي برطانيه جي سلطنت ٺاهي. يونين ۾ سال 1800ع ۾ آئرلينڊ جي بادشاهت کي شامل ڪيو ويو ته جيئن 1801ع ۾ برطانيه ۽ آئرلينڊ جي سلطنت ٺاهي وئي. آئرلينڊ جو گهڻو حصو سال 1922ع ۾ برطانيه کان آئرش آزاد رياست جي طور تي الڳ ٿي ويو ۽ رائل ۽ پارلياماني ٽائيٽل ايڪٽ 1927ع موجوده نالو، برطانيه جي برطانيه ۽ اتر آئرلينڊ جي گڏيل رياست، پيدا ڪيو.

برطانيه پهريون صنعتي ملڪ بڻجي ويو ۽ 19هين ۽ 20ھین صدي جي اوائلي اڪثريت لاءِ، خاص طور تي 1815ع ۽ 1914ع جي وچ ۾ "پيڪس برٽانيڪا" جي دور ۾، دنيا جي سڀ کان وڏي طاقت هئي.[25] [26] 1920ع جي ڏهاڪي ۾ پنهنجي عروج تي، برطانوي سلطنت، دنيا جي زمين ۽ آبادي جو لڳ ڀڳ هڪ چوٿون حصي تي پکڙيل ۽ تاريخ ۾ سڀ کان وڏي سلطنت هئي. جڏهن ته، پهرين عالمي جنگ ۽ ٻي عالمي جنگ ۾ ان جي شموليت برطانيه جي اقتصادي طاقت کي نقصان پهچايو ۽ غير آبادڪاري جي عالمي لهر اڪثر برطانوي نوآبادين جي آزادي جو سبب بڻيو.[27][28][29] برطانوي اثر ان جي ڪيترن ئي اڳوڻي نوآبادين جي قانوني ۽ سياسي نظام ۾ ڏسي سگھجي ٿو ۽ برطانوي ثقافت عالمي سطح تي اثر انداز ٿي رهي آهي، خاص طور تي ٻولي، ادب، موسيقي ۽ راندين ۾. انگريزي دنيا جي سڀ کان وڏي ڳالهائيندڙ ٻولي آهي ۽ ٽيون سڀ کان وڌيڪ ڳالهائي ويندڙ ٻولي آهي. [30]

گڏيل بادشاهت هڪ آئيني بادشاهت ۽ پارلياماني جمهوريت آهي. [31] بادشاھت وٽ ٽي الڳ اختيار آهن؛ انگلينڊ ۽ ويلز، اسڪاٽلينڊ ۽ اتر آئرلينڊ.[32] 1999ع کان وٺي، اسڪاٽ لينڊ، ويلز ۽ اتر آئرلينڊ جون پنهنجون حڪومتون ۽ پارليامينٽون آهن جيڪي مختلف معاملن تي ڪنٽرول ڪن ٿيون.[33]

گڏيل بادشاهت هڪ ترقي يافته ملڪ آهي ۽ عام مجموعي گھربل پيداوار (GDP) جي لحاظ کان، دنيا جي ڇهين وڏي معيشت آهي. اها هڪ تسليم ٿيل ايٽمي رياست آهي ۽ فوجي خرچن ۾ عالمي سطح تي چوٿين نمبر تي آهي.[34] [35] گڏيل بادشاهت سال 1946ع ۾ پنهنجي پهرين اجلاس کان وٺي گڏيل قومن جي سلامتي ڪائونسل جو مستقل ميمبر رهيو آهي. اهو گڏيل قومن UNO، ڪائونسل آف يورپ، جي-7، OECD، نيٽو، فائيو آئيز، AUKUS ۽ CPTPP جو ميمبر آهي.

نالو ۽ اصطلاحون

[سنواريو]
گڏيل بادشاھت جو جھنڊو

ايڪٽس آف يونين 1707ع اعلان ڪيو ته برطانيه جي بادشاهت ۽ اسڪاٽ لينڊ جي بادشاهي "گریٽ برطانيه جي نالي سان هڪ بادشاهي ۾ متحد" آھن. اصطلاح "يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم" ڪڏهن ڪڏهن استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي وضاحت جي طور تي اڳوڻي برطانيه جي بادشاهي لاء، جيتوڻيڪ ان جو سرڪاري نالو سال 1707ع کان 1800ع تائين صرف "عظيم برطانيه" هو. يونين 1800ع جا قانون 1801ع ۾ برطانيه ۽ آئرلينڊ جي بادشاهن کي متحد ڪري ۽ برطانيه ۽ آئرلينڊ جي یونین ٺاهي. آئرلينڊ جي ورهاڱي ۽ سال 1922ع ۾ آئرش فري اسٽيٽ جي آزاديءَ کان پوءِ، جنهن اتر آئرلينڊ کي برطانيه جي اندر آئرلينڊ جي ٻيٽ جو واحد حصو بڻائي ڇڏيو، ان جو نالو 1927ع ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويو ”يونائيٽيڊ ڪنگڊم آف گریٽ برطانيه ۽ اترين آئرلينڊ".

جيتوڻيڪ برطانيه هڪ خودمختيار ملڪ آهي، انگلينڊ، اسڪاٽلينڊ، ويلز ۽ اتر آئرلينڊ پڻ وڏي پيماني تي ملڪن طور حوالو ڏنو ويو آهي. برطانيه جي وزير اعظم جي ويب سائيٽ برطانيه کي بيان ڪرڻ لاءِ ”هڪ ملڪ اندر ملڪ“ لفظ استعمال ڪيو آهي. ڪجهه شمارياتي خلاصو، جيئن ته اهي ٻارهن NUTS 1 علائقن لاءِ اسڪاٽلينڊ، ويلز ۽ اتر آئرلينڊ کي "علائقن" طور حوالو ڏين ٿا. اتر آئرلينڊ پڻ "صوبو" طور حوالو ڏنو ويو آهي. اتر آئرلينڊ جي حوالي سان، وضاحتي نالو استعمال ڪيو ويو آهي "متضاد ٿي سگهي ٿو، چونڊ اڪثر ڪري ڪنهن جي سياسي ترجيحن کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو".

اصطلاح "عظيم برطانيه" روايتي طور تي برطانيه جي ٻيٽ ڏانهن اشارو ڪري ٿو، يا سياسي طور تي انگلينڊ، اسڪاٽلينڊ ۽ ويلز کي ميلاپ ۾. اهو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي لوز مترادف طور تي برطانيه لاءِ مجموعي طور تي. انگلينڊ لفظ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن غلط استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي مجموعي طور تي برطانيه جي حوالي سان، هڪ غلطي بنيادي طور تي برطانيه کان ٻاهر ماڻهن طرفان ڪئي وئي آهي.

اصطلاح "برطانيه" وڏي برطانيه، ۽ برطانيه جي مترادف طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. استعمال ملايو ويو آهي: برطانيه جي حڪومت پنهنجي ويب سائيٽ تي "برطانيه" يا "برطانوي" جي بدران اصطلاح "برطانيه" استعمال ڪرڻ کي ترجيح ڏئي ٿي (سواءِ جڏهن سفارتخانن جي حوالي سان)، جڏهن ته تسليم ڪيو ويو ته ٻنهي اصطلاحن جو حوالو آهي برطانيه ۽ اهو ٻئي هنڌ "برطانوي" حڪومت" استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ اڪثر "برطانيه حڪومت" جي طور تي. جاگرافيائي نالن تي برطانيه جي مستقل ڪميٽي ”برطانيه“، ”برطانيه“ ۽ ”برطانيه“ کي تسليم ڪري ٿي. جيئن مختصر ۽ مختصر ڪيل جيو پوليٽيڪل اصطلاحن لاءِ برطانيه جي برطانيه ۽ اتر آئرلينڊ لاءِ ان جي بنيادي هدايتن ۾؛ اهو "برطانيه" جي فهرست نه ٿو ڏئي پر نوٽ ڪري ٿو ته "اهو صرف هڪ مخصوص نامزد اصطلاح آهي 'عظيم برطانيه' جيڪو هميشه اتر آئرلينڊ کي خارج ڪري ٿو". بي بي سي تاريخي طور تي ”برطانيه“ کي شارٽ هينڊ طور استعمال ڪرڻ کي ترجيح ڏني صرف برطانيه لاءِ، حالانڪ موجوده طرز جي گائيڊ ان کان سواءِ ڪو موقف نٿو رکي ته ”گرٽ برطانيه“ اتر آئرلينڊ کي شامل نه ڪري.

تاريخ

[سنواريو]

يونين جي معاهدي کان اڳ

[سنواريو]
ولٽ شائر ۾ اسٽون هينج پٿرن جو هڪ انگو آهي، هر هڪ اٽڪل 4 ميٽر (13 فوٽ) اوچو، 2 ميٽر (7 فوٽ) ويڪر ۽ 25 ٽن، 2400 کان 2200 ق.م. جي دوران ٺهرايو ویو.

ڪرو مئگنن (Cro-Magnons) طرفان آبادي جيڪا برطانيه ٿيڻ واري هئي، تقريبن 30,000 سال اڳ شروع ٿيندڙ موج ۾ واقع ٿي.[36] هي ٻيٽ 11,500 سال اڳ برف جي آخري پساهن کان وٺي مسلسل آباد آهي. علائقي جي قبل از تاريخ واري دور جي پڄاڻيءَ تائين، آباديءَ جو خيال گهڻو ڪري هڪ ڪلچر سان واسطو رکي ٿو جنهن کي انسیولر سيلٽڪ سڏيو وڃي ٿو، جنهن ۾ برٽونڪ برطانيه ۽ گيلڪ آئرلينڊ شامل آهن.[37]

Photograph of the Baths showing a rectangular area of greenish water surrounded by yellow stone buildings with pillars. In the background is the tower of the abbey.
The بيٿ، سومرسيٽ ۾ رومن حمام، رومن برطانيه کان چڱيءَ طرح محفوظ ٿيل گرم حمام آھن.

رومن فتح، 43ع ۾ شروع ٿي، ۽ ڏکڻ برطانيه جي 400 سالن جي حڪمراني، جرمن اينگلو۔سيڪسن جي آبادڪارن جي حملي کان پوء، برٽونڪ علائقي کي خاص طور تي ويلز، ڪارن وال ۽ آخري مرحلن تائين گھٽائي ڇڏيو. اينگلو-سيڪسن جي آبادي، هين اوگليڊ (اتر انگلينڊ ۽ ڏکڻ اسڪاٽلينڊ جا حصا). [38] 10ھین صدي عيسويءَ ۾ اينگلو-سيڪسن پاران آباد ڪيل اڪثر علائقا انگلينڊ جي سلطنت طور متحد ٿي ويا.[39] ان دوران، اتر۔اولهه برطانيه ۾ گيلڪ ڳالهائيندڙ (جنهن جو تعلق آئرلينڊ جي اتر۔اوڀر سان آهي ۽ روايتي طور تي 5ھین صدي عيسويءَ ۾ اتان لڏي ويا هئا) 9هين صديءَ ۾ اسڪاٽ لينڊ جي بادشاهت ٺاهڻ لاءِ پِڪٽن سان متحد ٿي ويا.[40][41]0

بيوڪس ٽيپسٽري ۾ هيسٽنگس جي جنگ، 1066، ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ واقعن کي ظاهر ڪري ٿو.

سال 1066ع ۾، نارمنن اتر فرانس کان انگلينڊ تي حملو ڪيو. انگلينڊ کي فتح ڪرڻ کان پوءِ، هنن ويلز جي وڏي حصي تي قبضو ڪيو، آئرلينڊ جو گهڻو حصو فتح ڪيو ۽ اسڪاٽ لينڊ ۾ آباد ٿيڻ جي دعوت ڏني وئي، هر ملڪ ۾ جاگيرداريزم کي اتر فرينچ ماڊل ۽ نارمن-فرانسيسي ڪلچر تي آندو. [42] اينگلو-نارمن حڪمران طبقو تمام گهڻو متاثر ٿيو، پر آخرڪار، مقامي ثقافتن سان ملائي. [43] بعد ۾ وچين دور جي انگريز بادشاهن ويلز جي فتح مڪمل ڪئي ۽ اسڪاٽلينڊ کي ملائڻ جي ناڪام ڪوشش ڪئي. آربروٿ جی 1320ع جي اعلان ۾ پنهنجي آزاديءَ تي زور ڏيندي، اسڪاٽ لينڊ ان کان پوءِ، جيتوڻيڪ انگلينڊ سان لڳ ڀڳ مسلسل تڪرار ۾، پنهنجي آزادي برقرار رکي.

سال 1215ع ۾ ميگنا ڪارٽا پهريون دستاويز هو جنهن ۾ اهو بيان ڪيو ويو ته ڪابه حڪومت قانون کان مٿانهون نه آهي، شهرين کي انهن جي حفاظت ڪرڻ جا حق آهن ۽ اهي هڪ منصفانه آزمائش جا حقدار آهن. [44]

انگريزي بادشاهن، فرانس ۾ ڪافي علائقا وراثت ۾ حاصل ڪرڻ ۽ فرانسيسي تاج تي دعويٰ ڪرڻ جي ذريعي، فرانس ۾ پڻ وڏي پئماني تي تڪرارن ۾ ملوث هئا، خاص طور تي سو سالن جي جنگ، جڏهن ته اسڪاٽس جا بادشاهه ان دور ۾ فرانس سان اتحاد ۾ هئا. [45] ابتدائي جديد برطانيه مذهبي اصلاح جي نتيجي ۾ ۽ هر ملڪ ۾ پروٽسٽنٽ رياست جي گرجا گھرن جي تعارف جي نتيجي ۾ تڪرار ڏٺو. [46] انگريزي اصلاح 16ھین صدي ۾ سياسي، آئيني، سماجي ۽ ثقافتي تبديليءَ جي شروعات ڪئي ۽ چرچ آف انگلينڊ قائم ڪيو. ان کان علاوه، ان انگلينڊ جي قومي سڃاڻپ جي وضاحت ڪئي ۽ آهستي آهستي، پر وڏي پيماني تي، ماڻهن جي مذهبي عقيدن کي تبديل ڪيو.[47] ويلز کي مڪمل طور تي انگلينڊ جي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو [48] ۽ آئرلينڊ کي انگريز تاج سان ذاتي اتحاد ۾ هڪ سلطنت جي طور تي قائم ڪيو ويو.[49] جنهن ۾ اتر آئرلينڊ ٿيڻو هو، آزاد ڪيٿولڪ گيلڪ جي اميرن جون زمينون ضبط ڪيون ويون ۽ انگلينڊ ۽ اسڪاٽلينڊ جي پروٽسٽنٽ آبادڪارن کي ڏنيون ويون.[50]

انگلينڊ، فن، واپار، واپار، صنعت، فن تعمير ۽ سائنس جي وسيع ترقي سان، هڪ نوآبادياتي ۽ سامونڊي طاقت بڻجي ويو.[51] ايلزبيٿن انگلينڊ انگريزي ريناسنس جي اپوگي جي نمائندگي ڪئي ۽ عظيم شاعري، موسيقي ۽ ادب جي گلن کي ڏٺو.[52] ايسٽ انڊيا ڪمپنيءَ جي قيام سان، ٻين انگريزن جوائنٽ اسٽاڪ ڪمپنيون ۽ ادارن، انگلينڊ يورپ سان مقابلو ڪيو، ۽ هڪ واپاري سلطنت ٺاهي.[53][54][55]

سال 1603ع ۾ انگلينڊ، اسڪاٽ لينڊ ۽ آئرلينڊ جون سلطنتون ذاتي اتحاد ۾ متحد ٿي ويون جڏهن اسڪاٽس جي بادشاهه جيمس VI، انگلينڊ ۽ آئرلينڊ جا تاج ورثي ۾ ورتا ۽ پنهنجي ڪورٽ ايڊنبرا کان لنڊن منتقل ڪئي. ان جي باوجود هر ملڪ هڪ الڳ سياسي ادارو رهيو ۽ پنهنجا الڳ سياسي، قانوني ۽ مذهبي ادارا برقرار رکيا.[56]

17هين صدي جي وچ ڌاري، ٽيئي سلطنتون جڙيل جنگين جي هڪ سلسلي ۾ شامل هيون (جنهن ۾ انگريزي گهرو ويڙهه به شامل هئي) جنهن جي نتيجي ۾، بادشاهه چارلس اول جي موت سان، بادشاهت جو تختو اونڌو ڪيو ويو ۽ مختصر عرصی لاء انگلينڊ، اسڪاٽ لينڊ ۽ آئرلينڊ جي دولت مشترڪه جي عارضي گڏيل جمهوري رياست رهي.[57]

جيتوڻيڪ بادشاهت بحال ٿي وئي، سال 1688ع جي شاندار انقلاب سان گڏ انٽر ريگنم ۽ انگلينڊ ۾ بل آف رائيٽس 1689ع ۽ اسڪاٽلينڊ ۾ ڪليم آف رائٽ ايڪٽ 1689ع ان ڳالهه کي يقيني بڻايو ته، باقي يورپ جي اڪثر ملڪن جي برعڪس، شاهي مطلق العنانيت غالب نه ٿيندي، ۽ هڪ ڪيٿولڪ ڪڏهن به تخت تي داخل نه ٿي سگهندو. برطانوي آئين آئيني بادشاهت ۽ پارلياماني نظام جي بنياد تي ترقي ڪندو. [58] سال 1660ع ۾ رائل سوسائٽيءَ جي قيام سان، سائنس کي تمام گهڻو فروغ ڏنو ويو. رائل سوسائٽيءَ جي قيام جديد تجرباتي سائنس جو بنياد رکيو.[59] ان عرصي دوران، خاص طور تي انگلينڊ ۾ بحري طاقت جي ترقي ۽ دريافت جي سفرن ۾ دلچسپي، خاص طور تي اتر آمريڪا ۽ ڪيريبين ۾ غير ملڪي نوآبادين جي حصول ۽ آبادي جو سبب بڻيا.[60]

جيتوڻيڪ سال 1606ع، 1667ع ۽ 1689ع ۾ برطانيه جي اندر ٻن بادشاهن کي متحد ڪرڻ جي پوئين ڪوششون ناڪام ثابت ٿيون، سال 1705ع ۾ شروع ڪيل ڪوشش جي نتيجي ۾ 1706ع جي يونين جي معاهدي تي اتفاق ڪيو ويو ۽ ٻنهي پارليامينٽ طرفان تصديق ڪئي وئي.

برطانيه جي سلطنت

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ٽرافلگر جي جنگ ۾ افتتاحي معرڪو. مصوري: جي. ڊبلیو. ڪارمائيڪل
اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو يونين جو معاهدو ۽ برطانيه جي سلطنت

1 مئي 1707 تي، يونين 1707ع جي ايڪٽس جي نتيجي ۾ برطانيه جي سلطنت قائم ڪئي وئي،[61] 18 صدي عيسويء ۾، ڪابينا جي حڪومت رابرٽ والپول، عملي طور تي پهريون وزيراعظم (1721-1742) جي تحت ترقي ڪئي. جيڪوبائيٽ بغاوتن جو هڪ سلسلو هونور جي پروٽسٽنٽ هائوس کي تخت تان هٽائڻ ۽ ڪيٿولڪ هائوس آف اسٽوارٽ کي بحال ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي. جيڪوبائٽس آخرڪار 1746ع ۾ ڪولوڊن جي جنگ ۾ شڪست کائي ويا، جنهن کان پوءِ اسڪاٽش هاءِ لينڊ وارن کي زبردستي اسڪاٽ لينڊ ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو، قبيلي جي سردارن جي جاگيرداري آزادي کي رد ڪندي. اتر آمريڪا ۾ برطانوي نوآباديون جيڪي آمريڪي جنگ جي آزاديءَ ۾ ڀڄي ويون، اهي گڏيل رياستون بڻجي ويون، جن کي 1783ع ۾ برطانيه تسليم ڪيو. برطانوي سامراجي عزائم ايشيا، خاص ڪري هندستان ڏانهن رخ ڪيو.[62]

برطانوي واپارين ائٽلانٽڪ غلامن جي واپار ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو، خاص طور تي سال 1662ع ۽ 1807ع جي وچ ۾ جڏهن برطانوي يا برطانوي نوآبادياتي غلام ٻيڙيون آفريڪا مان لڳ ڀڳ 33 لک غلامن کي منتقل ڪيو.[63] غلامن کي، خاص طور تي ڪيريبين ۾ پر اتر آمريڪا ۾ پن ٻوٽن تي ڪم ڪرڻ لاءِ ورتو ويو. [64] بهرحال، خاتمي جي تحريڪ جي دٻاءَ سان، پارليامينٽ سال 1807ع ۾ واپار تي پابندي لڳائي، 1833ع ۾ برطانوي سلطنت ۾ غلاميءَ تي پابندي لڳائي، ۽ برطانيه آفريڪا جي بندش ذريعي سڄي دنيا ۾ غلاميءَ جي خاتمي لاءِ تحريڪ ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو ۽ معاهدن جي هڪ سلسلي سان ٻين قومن تي غلاميءَ جي خاتمي لاءِ دٻاءُ وڌو.[65]

برطانيه ۽ آئرلينڊ جي گڏيل بادشاهت

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Victoria reigned as Queen of the United Kingdom and Empress of India during the 19th century.

In 1800 the parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland each passed an Act of Union, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801.[66]

After the defeat of France at the end of the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815), the United Kingdom emerged as the principal naval and imperial power (with London the largest city in the world from about 1830).[67] Unchallenged at sea, British dominance was later described as Pax Britannica ("British Peace"), a period of relative peace among the great powers (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon and adopted the role of global policeman.[68][69] By the time of the Great Exhibition of 1851, Britain was described as the "workshop of the world".[70] From 1853 to 1856, Britain took part in the Crimean War, allied with the Ottoman Empire against Tsarist Russia,[71] participating in the naval battles of the Baltic Sea known as the Åland War in the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland, among others.[72] Following the Indian Rebellion in 1857, the British government led by Lord Palmerston assumed direct rule over India. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of regions such as East Asia and Latin America.[73]

Throughout the Victorian era, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies. Beginning with the Great Reform Act in 1832, Parliament gradually widened the voting franchise, with the 1884 Reform Act championed by William Gladstone granting suffrage to a majority of males for the first time. The British population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, causing significant social and economic stresses.[74] By the late 19th century, the Conservatives under Benjamin Disraeli and Lord Salisbury initiated a period of imperial expansion in Africa, maintained a policy of splendid isolation in Europe, and attempted to contain Russian influence in Afghanistan and Persia, in what came to be known as the Great Game.[75] During this time, Canada, Australia and New Zealand were granted self-governing dominion status.[76] At the turn of the century, Britain's industrial dominance became challenged by the German Empire and the United States.[77] The Edwardian era saw social reform and home rule for Ireland become important domestic issues, while the Labour Party emerged from an alliance of trade unions and small socialist groups in 1900, and suffragettes campaigned for women's right to vote.[78]

World wars and partition of Ireland

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Wreaths being laid during the Remembrance Sunday service at the Cenotaph in Whitehall, London

Britain was one of the principal Allies that defeated the Central Powers in the First World War (1914–1918). Alongside their French, Russian and (after 1917) American counterparts,[79] British armed forces were engaged across much of the British Empire and in several regions of Europe, particularly on the Western Front.[80] The high fatalities of trench warfare caused the loss of much of a generation of men, with lasting social effects in the nation and a great disruption in the social order. Britain had suffered 2.5 million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt.[80] The consequences of the war persuaded the government to expand the right to vote in national and local elections to all adult men and most adult women with the Representation of the People Act 1918.[80] After the war, Britain became a permanent member of the Executive Council of the League of Nations and received a mandate over a number of former German and Ottoman colonies. Under the leadership of David Lloyd George, the British Empire reached its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world's land surface and a quarter of its population.[81]

By the mid-1920s, most of the British population could listen to BBC radio programmes.[82][83] Experimental television broadcasts began in 1929 and the first scheduled BBC Television Service commenced in 1936.[84] The rise of Irish nationalism, and disputes within Ireland over the terms of Irish Home Rule, led eventually to the partition of the island in 1921.[85] A period of conflict in what is now Northern Ireland occurred from June 1920 until June 1922 (see The Troubles in Ulster (1920–1922)). The Irish Free State became independent, initially with Dominion status in 1922, and unambiguously independent in 1931. Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom.[86] The 1928 Equal Franchise Act gave women electoral equality with men in national elections. Strikes in the mid-1920s culminated in the General Strike of 1926, which ended in a victory for the government led by Stanley Baldwin. Britain had still not recovered from the effects of the First World War when the Great Depression (1929–1932) led to considerable unemployment and hardship in the old industrial areas, as well as political and social unrest with rising membership in communist and socialist parties. A coalition government was formed in 1931.[87]

Spitfire and Hurricane as flown in the Battle of Britain during the Second World War

Nonetheless, "Britain was a very wealthy country, formidable in arms, ruthless in pursuit of its interests and sitting at the heart of a global production system."[88] After Nazi Germany invaded Poland in 1939, Britain entered the Second World War. Winston Churchill became prime minister and head of a coalition government in 1940. Despite the defeat of its European allies in the first year, Britain and its Empire continued the war against Germany. Churchill engaged industry, scientists and engineers to support the government and the military in the prosecution of the war effort.[88]

In 1940, the Royal Air Force defeated the German Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain. Urban areas suffered heavy bombing during the Blitz. The Grand Alliance of Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union formed in 1941, leading the Allies against the Axis powers. There were eventual hard-fought victories in the Battle of the Atlantic, the North Africa campaign and the Italian campaign. British forces played important roles in the Normandy landings of 1944 and the liberation of Europe. The British Army led the Burma campaign against Japan, and the British Pacific Fleet fought Japan at sea. British scientists contributed to the Manhattan Project whose task was to build an atomic weapon.[89] Once built, it was decided, with British consent, to use the weapon against Japan.[90] The wartime net losses in British national wealth amounted to 18.6% (£4.595 billion) of the prewar wealth (£24.68 billion), at 1938 prices.[91]

Postwar 20th century

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اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو Post-war Britain (1945–1979) ۽ Social history of post-war Britain (1945–1979)
The British Empire at its territorial peak in 1921
Concorde was a supersonic airliner that reduced transatlantic flight time from 8 hours to 3.5 hours.[92]
Canary Wharf, a symbol of the financial reforms initiated by Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s

The UK was one of the Big Three powers (along with the US and the Soviet Union) who met to plan the post-war world;[93] it drafted the Declaration by United Nations with the United States and became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. It worked closely with the United States to establish the IMF, World Bank and NATO.[94] The war left the UK severely weakened and financially dependent on the Marshall Plan,[95] but it was spared the total war that devastated eastern Europe.[96]

In the immediate post-war years, the Labour government under Clement Attlee initiated a radical programme of reforms, which significantly impacted British society in the following decades.[97] Major industries and public utilities were nationalised, a welfare state was established, and a comprehensive, publicly funded healthcare system, the National Health Service, was created.[98] The rise of nationalism in the colonies coincided with Britain's much-diminished economic position, so that a policy of decolonisation was unavoidable. Independence was granted to India and Pakistan in 1947.[99] Over the next three decades, most colonies of the British Empire gained their independence, and many became members of the Commonwealth of Nations.[100]

The UK was the third country to develop a nuclear weapons arsenal (with its first atomic bomb test, Operation Hurricane, in 1952), but the post-war limits of Britain's international role were illustrated by the Suez Crisis of 1956. The international spread of the English language ensured the continuing international influence of its literature and culture.[101][102] As a result of a shortage of workers in the 1950s, the government encouraged immigration from Commonwealth countries. In the following decades, the UK became a more multi-ethnic society.[103] Despite rising living standards in the late 1950s and 1960s, the UK's economic performance was less successful than many of its main competitors such as France, West Germany and Japan. The UK was the first democratic nation to lower its voting age to 18 in 1969.[104]

In the decades-long process of European integration, the UK was a founding member of the Western European Union, established with the London and Paris Conferences in 1954. In 1960 the UK was one of the seven founding members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), but in 1973 it left to join the European Communities (EC). In a 1975 referendum 67% voted to stay in it.[105] When the EC became the European Union (EU) in 1992, the UK was one of the 12 founding member states.

From the late 1960s, Northern Ireland suffered communal and paramilitary violence (sometimes affecting other parts of the UK) conventionally known as the Troubles. It is usually considered to have ended with the 1998 Belfast "Good Friday" Agreement.[106] Following a period of widespread economic slowdown and industrial strife in the 1970s, the Conservative government of the 1980s led by Margaret Thatcher initiated a radical policy of monetarism, deregulation, particularly of the financial sector (for example, the Big Bang in 1986) and labour markets, the sale of state-owned companies (privatisation), and the withdrawal of subsidies to others.[107]

In 1982, Argentina invaded the British territories of South Georgia and the Falkland Islands, leading to the 10-week Falklands War in which Argentine forces were defeated. The inhabitants of the islands are predominantly descendants of British settlers, and strongly favour British sovereignty, expressed in a 2013 referendum. From 1984, the UK economy was helped by the inflow of substantial North Sea oil revenues.[108] Another British overseas territory, Gibraltar, ceded to Great Britain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht,[109] is a key military base for the UK. A referendum in 2002 on shared sovereignty with Spain was rejected by 98.97% of voters in the territory.

Around the end of the 20th century, there were major changes to the governance of the UK with the establishment of devolved administrations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.[110] The statutory incorporation followed acceptance of the European Convention on Human Rights. The UK remained a great power with global diplomatic and military influence and a leading role in the United Nations and NATO.[111]

21st century

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Pro-Brexit campaigners outside Parliament in London in November 2016, after the Brexit referendum

The UK broadly supported the United States' approach to the "war on terror" in the early 21st century.[112] British troops fought in the War in Afghanistan, but controversy surrounded Britain's military deployment in Iraq, which saw the largest protest in British history demonstrating in opposition to the government led by Tony Blair.[113]

The 2008 global financial crisis severely affected the UK economy.[114] The Cameron–Clegg coalition government of 2010 introduced austerity measures intended to tackle the substantial public deficits.[115] Studies have suggested that policy led to significant social disruption and suffering.[116][117] A referendum on Scottish independence in 2014 resulted in the Scottish electorate voting by 55.3 to 44.7% to remain part of the United Kingdom.[118]

In 2016, 51.9 per cent of voters in the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union.[119] The UK left the EU in 2020.[120] On 1 May 2021 the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement came into force.[121]

The COVID-19 pandemic had a severe impact on the UK's economy, caused major disruptions to education and had far-reaching impacts on society and politics in 2020 and 2021.[122][123][124] The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to use an approved COVID-19 vaccine, developing its own vaccine through a collaboration between Oxford University and AstraZeneca, which allowed the UK's vaccine rollout to be among the fastest in the world.[125][126]

On 8 September 2022, Elizabeth II, the longest-living and longest-reigning British monarch, died at the age of 96.[127] Upon the Queen's death, her eldest child Charles, Prince of Wales, acceded to the British throne as Charles III.[128]

جاگرافي

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سياست

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آبادي

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معيشت

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ثقافت

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پڻ ڏسو

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خارجي ڳنڍڻا

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گڏيل بادشاھت بابت وڌيڪ ڏسو وڪيپيڊيا جي ڀينر رٿائن ۾:
معني ڏسو وِڪِشنري تي
تصويرون ۽ وڊيو ڏسو وڪي ڪامنز تي
تربيتي مواد ڏسو وڪي ورسٽي تي
نيوز اسٽوريز وڪي نيوز تان
چَوِڻيون Quotations وڪي ڪوٽ تان
سورس ٽيڪسٽس وڪي سورس تان
درسي ڪتاب وڪي ڪتاب تان

حڪومت

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سیاحت

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سانچو:United Kingdom topics


55°N 3°W / 55°N 3°W / 55; -3

حوالا

[سنواريو]
  1. ↑ "National Anthem". The Royal Family. حاصل ڪيل 10 April 2024. 
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  3. ↑ "Welsh language on GOV.UK – Content design: planning, writing and managing content – Guidance". gov.uk. وقت 4 August 2018 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 3 August 2018.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد); "Welsh language scheme". GOV.UK. https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-transport/about/welsh-language-scheme. ; "Welsh language scheme". GOV.UK. https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/home-office/about/welsh-language-scheme. 
  4. ↑ Bradbury, Jonathan (2021). Constitutional Policy and Territorial Politics in the UK: Volume 1: Union and Devolution 1997–2012. Policy Press. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-1-5292-0588-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=c3QWEAAAQBAJ&q=%2522union+state%2522+UK+unitary&pg=PA19. 
  5. ↑ Leith, Murray Stewart (2012). Political Discourse and National Identity in Scotland. Edinburgh University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-7486-8862-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=PeBvAAAAQBAJ&q=Uk+%2522unitary+state%2522&pg=PA39. 
  6. ↑ Gagnon, Alain-G.; Tully, James (2001). Multinational Democracies. Cambridge University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-521-80473-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=g0ahE2fTxS0C&q=%2522union+state%2522+UK+unitary&pg=PA47. ; Bogdanor, Vernon (1998). "Devolution: the Constitutional Aspects". in Beatson, Jack. Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom: Practice and Principles. Oxford: Hart Publishing. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-901362-84-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=YEEgDsCYmbQC&q=%2522union+state%2522+UK+unitary&pg=PA18. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Standard Area Measurements for Administrative Areas (December 2023) in the UK". Open Geography Portal. Office for National Statistics. حاصل ڪيل 7 June 2024. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Estimates of the population for the UK, England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland". Office for National Statistics. حاصل ڪيل 9 April 2024. 
  9. ↑ "Population and household estimates, England and Wales: Census 2021, unrounded data". Office for National Statistics. حاصل ڪيل 28 May 2024. 
  10. ↑ "2021 Census". Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. حاصل ڪيل 28 May 2024. 
  11. ↑ "Quality Assurance report – Unrounded population estimates and ethnic group, national identity, language and religion topic data". Scotland's Census. حاصل ڪيل 28 May 2024. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 "World Economic Outlook Database". International Monetary Fund. حاصل ڪيل 16 April 2024. 
  13. ↑ "Ethnic group". Office for National Statistics. حاصل ڪيل 28 May 2024. 
  14. ↑ "MS-B01 Ethnic group". Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. حاصل ڪيل 28 May 2024. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "Ethnic group, national identity, language and religion". Scotland's Census. حاصل ڪيل 28 May 2024. 
  16. ↑ "Religion (detailed)". Office for National Statistics. حاصل ڪيل 28 May 2024. 
  17. ↑ "MS-B21 Religion - full detail". Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. حاصل ڪيل 28 May 2024. 
  18. ↑ "Income inequality". OECD Data. OECD. وقت 1 July 2022 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 12 February 2024.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  19. ↑ "Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. وقت 13 March 2024 تي اصل (PDF) کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 13 March 2024.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  20. ↑ "Formatting dates and times in data". gov.uk. HM Government. حاصل ڪيل 1 June 2024. 
  21. ↑ "Toponymic guidelines for map and other editors, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". GOV.UK. وقت 17 June 2018 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 12 February 2024. usually shortened to United Kingdom ... The abbreviation is UK or U.K.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  22. ↑ "A Beginners Guide to UK Geography (2023)". Open Geography Portal. Office for National Statistics. وقت 9 December 2023 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 9 December 2023.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  23. ↑ "Definition of Great Britain in English". Oxford University Press. وقت 4 October 2013 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 29 October 2014. Great Britain is the name for the island that comprises England, Scotland and Wales, although the term is also used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom. 
  24. ↑ "Major Agglomerations". حاصل ڪيل 16 October 2023. 
  25. ↑ Mathias, P. (2001). The First Industrial Nation: the Economic History of Britain, 1700–1914. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26672-7. ; Ferguson, Niall (2004). Empire: The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02328-8. https://archive.org/details/empire00nial. 
  26. ↑ McDougall, Walter A. "20th-century international relations". Encyclopædia Britannica. وقت 12 July 2019 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 6 May 2023.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  27. ↑ Brown, Judith (1998). The Twentieth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume IV. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924679-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=CpSvK3An3hwC. Retrieved 22 July 2009.  p. 319
  28. ↑ Louis, Wm. Roger (2006). Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-347-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC. Retrieved 22 July 2009.  p. 337
  29. ↑ Abernethy, David (2000). The Dynamics of Global Dominance, European Overseas Empires 1415–1980. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09314-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=ennqNS1EOuMC. Retrieved 22 July 2009.  p. 146
  30. ↑ "What are the top 200 most spoken languages?". Ethnologue. وقت 18 June 2023 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 25 August 2023.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  31. ↑ The British Monarchy, "What is constitutional monarchy?" آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 4 June 2019 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين.. Retrieved 17 July 2013; "United Kingdom" آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 9 January 2021 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين. CIA The World Factbook. Retrieved 17 July 2013
  32. ↑ Dewart, Megan (2019). The Scottish Legal System. UK: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-5265-0633-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=XW_EtwEACAAJ. Retrieved 4 July 2023. "The laws and legal institutions of Scotland and of England and Wales were not merged by the Union of 1707. Thus, they remain separate 'law areas', with separate court systems (as does Northern Ireland), and it is necessary to distinguish Scots law and English law (and Northern Irish law)." ; "The justice system and the constitution". Courts and Tribunals Judiciary. وقت 21 May 2023 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 13 June 2023. The United Kingdom has three separate legal systems; one each for England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. This reflects its historical origins and the fact that both Scotland and Ireland, and later Northern Ireland, retained their own legal systems and traditions under the Acts of Union 1707 and 1800. 
  33. ↑ "Devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland". United Kingdom Government. وقت 18 July 2013 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 17 April 2013. In a similar way to how the government is formed from members from the two Houses of Parliament, members of the devolved legislatures nominate ministers from among themselves to comprise executives, known as the devolved administrations...  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد); "Country Overviews: United Kingdom". Transport Research Knowledge Centre. وقت 4 April 2010 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 28 March 2010. 
  34. ↑ "IISS Military Balance 2021". The Military Balance 121 (1): 23–29. January 2021. doi:10.1080/04597222.2021.1868791. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/04597222.2021.1868791?journalCode=tmib20. Retrieved 1 October 2021. 
  35. ↑ da Silva, Diego Lopes; Tian, Nan; Béraud-Sudreau, Lucie; Marksteiner, Alexandra; Liang, Xiao. Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2021 (fact sheet). SIPRI. doi:10.55163/DZJD8826. وقت 25 April 2022 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 3 April 2023.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد); Unknown parameter |doi-access= ignored (مدد); Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (مدد)
  36. ↑ "Ancient skeleton was 'even older' آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 13 February 2021 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين.". BBC News. 30 October 2007. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
  37. ↑ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic culture: A historical encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 973. ISBN 978-1-85109-440-0. https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128. 
  38. ↑ Davies, John, ed (2008). The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. p. 915. ISBN 978-0-7083-1953-6. 
  39. ↑ "Short Athelstan biography". BBC History. وقت 13 February 2007 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 9 April 2013.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  40. ↑ Mackie, J.D. (1991). A History of Scotland. London: Penguin. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-0-14-013649-4. https://archive.org/details/historyofscotlan00mack_0/page/18. ; Campbell, Ewan (1999). Saints and Sea-kings: The First Kingdom of the Scots. Edinburgh: Canongate. pp. 8–15. ISBN 978-0-86241-874-8. 
  41. ↑ Haigh, Christopher (1990). The Cambridge Historical Encyclopedia of Great Britain and Ireland. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-521-39552-6. https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistori0000unse_a9n8/page/30. 
  42. ↑ Ganshof, F.L. (1996). Feudalism. University of Toronto. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-8020-7158-3. https://archive.org/details/feudalism0000gans_j4b5. 
  43. ↑ Chibnall, Marjorie (1999). The Debate on the Norman Conquest. Manchester University Press. pp. 115–122. ISBN 978-0-7190-4913-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=qJl5Jm-IndUC&pg=PA115. Retrieved 20 March 2023. 
  44. ↑ "Magna Carta". parliament.uk. حاصل ڪيل 27 May 2024.  "The contents of Magna Carta". parliament.uk. حاصل ڪيل 27 May 2024.  "Magna Carta Key Facts". Britannica. حاصل ڪيل 27 May 2024. 
  45. ↑ Keen, Maurice. "The Hundred Years' War" آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 14 December 2013 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين.. BBC History.
  46. ↑ The Reformation in England and Scotland آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 15 May 2015 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين. and Ireland: The Reformation Period & Ireland under Elizabeth I آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 21 May 2015 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين., Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
  47. ↑ "English Reformation c1527-1590". The National Archives. وقت 2 December 2022 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 20 January 2023.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  48. ↑ "British History in Depth – Wales under the Tudors". BBC History. وقت 7 February 2012 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 21 September 2010.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  49. ↑ Nicholls, Mark (1999). A history of the modern British Isles, 1529–1603: The two kingdoms. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 171–172. ISBN 978-0-631-19334-0. https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernb0000nich. 
  50. ↑ Canny, Nicholas P. (2003). Making Ireland British, 1580–1650. Oxford University Press. pp. 189–200. ISBN 978-0-19-925905-2. https://archive.org/details/makingirelandbri00cann. 
  51. ↑ Klein, Jürgen, "Francis Bacon", ۾ Zalta, Edward N., The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, حاصل ڪيل 17 January 2020 
  52. ↑ From the 1944 Clark lectures by C. S. Lewis; Lewis, English Literature in the Sixteenth Century (Oxford, 1954) p. 1, سانچو:OCLC
  53. ↑ Farrington, Anthony (2002) (en ۾). Trading Places: The East India Company and Asia 1600–1834. British Library. ISBN 9780712347563. https://books.google.com/books?id=6g5XwAEACAAJ. Retrieved 21 September 2019. 
  54. ↑ Usher, Abbott Payson (1928). "The Growth of English Shipping 1572-1922". The Quarterly Journal of Economics 42 (3): 465–478. doi:10.2307/1884787. ISSN 0033-5533. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1884787. 
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  56. ↑ Ross, D. (2002). Chronology of Scottish History. Glasgow: Geddes & Grosset. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-85534-380-1; Hearn, J. (2002). Claiming Scotland: National Identity and Liberal Culture. Edinburgh University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-1-902930-16-9
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  60. ↑ "Tudor Period and the Birth of a Regular Navy". Royal Navy History. Institute of Naval History. وقت 3 November 2011 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 8 March 2015. ; Canny, Nicholas (1998). The Origins of Empire, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume I. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924676-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=eQHSivGzEEMC. Retrieved 29 September 2020. 
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  62. ↑ Library of Congress, The Impact of the American Revolution Abroad آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 28 March 2024 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين., p. 73.
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  93. ↑ Doenecke, Justus D.; Stoler, Mark A. (2005). Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policies, 1933–1945. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8476-9416-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62. Retrieved 19 March 2016. ; Kelly, Brian. The Four Policemen and Postwar Planning, 1943–1945: The Collision of Realist and Idealist Perspectives. Indiana University of Pennsylvania. https://www.iup.edu/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=37681. Retrieved 25 August 2015. 
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  97. ↑ Francis, Martin (1997). Ideas and policies under Labour, 1945–1951: Building a new Britain. Manchester University Press. pp. 225–233. ISBN 978-0-7190-4833-3. 
  98. ↑ Lee, Stephen J. (1996). Aspects of British political history, 1914–1995. London; New York: Routledge. pp. 173–199. ISBN 978-0-415-13103-2. https://archive.org/details/aspectsbritishpo00lees. 
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  100. ↑ "Country List". Commonwealth Secretariat. وقت 6 May 2013 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 8 March 2015. 
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  102. ↑ حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named sheridan
  103. ↑ Julios, Christina (2008). Contemporary British identity: English language, migrants, and public discourse. Studies in migration and diaspora. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-7546-7158-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=s3RQ4dsFEkoC&pg=PA84. Retrieved 29 September 2020. 
  104. ↑ Loughran, Thomas; Mycock, Andrew; Tonge, Jonathan (3 April 2021). "A coming of age: how and why the UK became the first democracy to allow votes for 18-year-olds" (en ۾). Contemporary British History 35 (2): 284–313. doi:10.1080/13619462.2021.1890589. ISSN 1361-9462. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13619462.2021.1890589. 
  105. ↑ "1975: UK embraces Europe in referendum". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/6/newsid_2499000/2499297.stm. 
  106. ↑ Aughey, Arthur (2005). The Politics of Northern Ireland: Beyond the Belfast Agreement. London: Routledge. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-415-32788-6. https://archive.org/details/politicsnorthern00augh. ; "The troubles were over, but the killing continued. Some of the heirs to Ireland's violent traditions refused to give up their inheritance." Holland, Jack (1999). Hope against History: The Course of Conflict in Northern Ireland. New York: Henry Holt. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-8050-6087-4. https://archive.org/details/hopeagainsthisto00holl/page/221. ; Elliot, Marianne (2007). The Long Road to Peace in Northern Ireland: Peace Lectures from the Institute of Irish Studies at Liverpool University. University of Liverpool Institute of Irish Studies, Liverpool University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-84631-065-2.
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  108. ↑ Griffiths, Alan; Wall, Stuart (2007). Applied Economics (11th ed.). Harlow: Financial Times Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-273-70822-3. http://vig.pearsoned.co.uk/catalog/uploads/Griffiths_C01.pdf. Retrieved 26 December 2010. 
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  112. ↑ McSmith, Andy (5 July 2016). "The inside story of how Tony Blair led Britain to war in Iraq". Independent (London). https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/chilcot-report-iraq-war-inquiry-tony-blair-george-bush-us-uk-what-happened-a7119761.html. 
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