مواد ڏانھن هلو

پيرو

ڳنڍڻن کي سنواريو
کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
(پيرو (ملڪ) کان چوريل)
جمهوريه پيرو

República del Perú (اسپيني)
Flag of پيرو
{{{coat_alt}}}
جھنڊو نِسبتي نشان
شُعار: '
"Firme y feliz por la unión" (Spanish)
" اتحاد لاء خوش ۽ پختا ٿيو"
ترانو: 
"Himno Nacional de Perú" (اسپيني)
"National Anthem of Peru"
قومي مھر

رياست جي وڏي مھر
آرٿوگرافڪ نقشي تي پيرو تيز سائي رنگ ۾ ڏيکاريل
آرٿوگرافڪ نقشي تي پيرو تيز سائي رنگ ۾ ڏيکاريل
جو مقامپيرو
گادي جو هنڌ ليما
12°2.6′S 77°1.7′W / 12.0433°S 77.0283°W / -12.0433; -77.0283
سڀ کان وڏو شهر ليما
سرڪاري ٻولي اسپيني
ٻيون سرڪاري ٻوليون[lower-alpha 1]
  • ڪئيچوئا
  • ٻيون مقامي ٻوليون
نسلي گروھ (پيرو جي مردم شماري، 2017ع [lower-alpha 2])
مذهب (2017 جي مردم شماري)
مقامي آبادي پيروويئن
حڪومت وحداني نيم صدارتي جمهوريه[1][2]
• صدر
 جوزئ جيري
• وزيراعظم
 ارنسٽو الوارز مرانڊا
• پھريون نائب صدر
 عهدو خالي آهي
• ڪانگريس جو صدر
 فرنينڊو روسپيگليوسي (قائم مقام)
مقننه ڪانگريس
آزادي اسپين کان
• اعلان
 28 جولاءِ، 1821ع
• اواڪوچو واري جنگ
 9 ڊسمبر، 1824ع
• تسليم ڪيو ويو
 14 آگسٽ، 1879ع
پکيڙ
• جملي
 1٬285٬216 km2 (496٬225 sq mi) (19هون)
• پاڻي (%)
 0.41
آبادي
• 2023ع اندازو
 3,43,52,720[3] (43هون)
• 2017ع مردم شماري
 3,12,37,385
•  گھاٽائي
 23 /km2 (59.6 /sq mi) (197هون)
جِي ڊي پي (مساوي قوت خريد ) 2025ع لڳ ڀڳ
• ڪل
 643.05 بلين آمريڪي ڊالر[4] (47هون)
• في سيڪڙو
 18,689 آمريڪي ڊالر[4] (99هون)
جِي. ڊي. پي  (رڳو نالي ۾ ) 2025ع لڳ ڀڳ
• ڪل
 303.3 بلين آمريڪي ڊالر (47هون)

پيرو (Peru؛ Listeni/pəˈruː/)؛ سرڪاري طور تي "پيرو جمهوريه" [5] ڏکڻ آمريڪا جي اولھه ۾ واقع آهي. ان جي اتر ۾ ايڪواڊور ۽ ڪولمبيا، اوڀر ۾ برازيل، ڏکڻ-اوڀر ۾ بوليويا، ڏکڻ ۾ چلي ۽ اولھه ۾ پئسيفڪ سمنڊ آھي. اها ھڪ گهڻ-نسلي ملڪ آھي، جن ۾ اولھندي پيسفڪ ساحلي علائقن جي بنجر ميدانن کان وٺي اتر کان ڏکڻ اوڀر تائين اينڊيس جبلن جي قطارون ۽ اوڀر ۾ ايمازون درياهه جي برساتي ٻيلن واري طاس ۾ جاندارن جون ڪيتريون ئي جنسون موجود آھن.[6]

ڪرسٽوفر ڪولمبس جي آمد کان اڳ وارو پيرو کوڙ قديم تهذيبن جو گھر ھيو جن ۾ 3200 ق.م. واري سڀ کان قديم نارٽي چيڪو تھذيب (آمريڪا جي پنجن قديم ترين تھذيبن مان ھڪ) کان وٺي ڪولمبس جي آمد کان اڳ آمريڪا جي سڀ کان وڏي انڪا ايمپائر (Inca Empire) تائين جي تھذيبون شامل آهن.

16هين صدي ۾ اسپين جي سلطنت ھن خطي تي قبضو ڪري پيرو جي وائسرالٽي قائم ڪئي، جن ۾ اسپين جي ڏکڻ آمريڪا وارين ڪالونين جو وڏو حصو شامل ھيو ۽ ان جو صدر مقام ليما ۾ رکيو . پيرو 1821ع ۾ اسپيني ارجنٽينا واري جنرل جوز ڊي سان مارٽن ۽ وينزويلائي اڳواڻ سائمن بوليوار جي فوجي مھمن ۽ اواڪوچو واري جنگ جي نتيجي ۾ باقاعده اسپين کان خود مختيار ٿيڻ جو اعلان ڪيو جن کان پوء پيرو 1824ع ۾ آزاد ٿيو.

پيرو ھڪ نمائندگي واري جمھوري ريپبلڪ رياست آھي جن جا 25 انتظامي صوبا آھن ۽ معاشي لحاظ کان ان جو شمار اڀرندڙ مارڪيٽن ۾ ٿئي ٿو،.[7] جن جي انساني ترقي جو اشاريو اوچو آهي ۽ وچولي آمدني جي مٿين سطح ۾ شمار ٿيندڙ آھي، جن ۾ غربت جي شرح 19 سيڪڙو آهي.[8] پيرو جي معيشت خطي اندر سڀ کان وڌيڪ خوشحالي واري آھي، جن جي سراسري واڌ جي شرح 5.9 سيڪڙو آهي ۽ ان جي صنعتي معيشت جي ترقي خطي ۾ سڀ کان تيز آھي، جن جي شرح %9.6 آهي.[9] ان جي وڏين معاشي سرگرمين ۾ کان ڪني، صنعتي پيداوار، زراعت ۽ مڇي جي شڪار سان گڏوگڏ ٽيليڪميونيڪيشن ۽ بائيو ٽيڪنالاجي آهن.[10]

پيرو ايشيا پيسيفڪ ايڪانامڪ ڪوآپريشن، پيسيفڪ الائنس، ٽرانس پيسيفڪ پارٽنرشپ ۽ ورلڊ ٽريڊ آرگنائيزيشن جو سرگرم رڪن آھي ۽ ان جو شمار وچولي طاقتن ۾ ٿئي ٿو.[11] ھن ملڪ جي آبادي 3,20,00,000 جي لڳ ڀڳ آهي جنھن ۾ ھتان جا اصل رهاڪو، يورپي گورا، آفريڪي ڪارا، ايشيائي ماڻھو شامل آهن. ھن ملڪ جي سڀ کان وڌيڪَ ڳالهائجندڙ ٻولي اسپيني آھي ۽ ٻئي نمبر تي ڪئيچوئائي آھي.

نالو

[سنواريو]

ملڪ جو نالو شايد بيرو مان نڪتل هجي. هڪ مقامي حڪمران جو نالو. جيڪو 16 صدي جي شروعات ۾ پاناما شهر جي خليج سين ميگوئل جي ويجهو رهندو هو. اسپيني فاتح (جيڪي 1522 ۾ پهتا) يقين رکندا هئا ته هي نئين دنيا جو ڏاکڻي حصو آهي. جڏهن فرانسسڪو پيزارو ڏکڻ وارن علائقن تي حملو ڪيو. ته انهن کي بيرو يا پيرو جو نالو ڏنو ويو.

اسپيني تاج 1529 جي ڪيپيٽوليسيئن ڊي ٽوليڊو سان نالو قانوني حيثيت ڏني. جنهن نئين سامهون ايندڙ انڪا سلطنت کي پيرو جو صوبو قرار ڏنو. 1561 ۾. باغي لوپ ڊي اگوائر پاڻ کي هڪ آزاد پيرو جو "شهزادو" قرار ڏنو. جيڪو (سندس گرفتاري ۽ موت جي سزا سان) ننڍو ڪيو ويو. اسپيني حڪمراني هيٺ. ملڪ پيرو جي وائسرايلٽي جو نالو اختيار ڪيو. جيڪو پنهنجي آزادي کان وٺي 1979 تائين پيرو جي جمهوريه بڻجي ويو. جڏهن ان پنهنجو موجوده نالو پيرو جي جمهوريه اختيار ڪيو.

تاريخ

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو پيرو جي تاريخ

ڪرسٽوفر ڪولمبس جي آمد کان اڳ وارو پيرو کوڙ قديم تهذيبن جو گھر ھيو جن ۾ 3200 ق.م. واري سڀ کان قديم نارٽي چيڪو تھذيب (آمريڪا جي پنجن قديم ترين تھذيبن مان ھڪ) کان وٺي ڪولمبس جي آمد کان اڳ آمريڪا جي سڀ کان وڏي انڪا ايمپائر (انگريزي: Inca Empire) تائين واريون تھذيبون شامل آهن.

سورھين صدي عيسوي ۾ اسپين جي ايمپائر ھن خطي تي قبضو ڪري پيرو جي وائسرائلٽي قائم ڪئي جنھن جو صدر مقام ليما ۾ رکيو جنھن ۾ اسپين جي ڏکڻ آمريڪا وارين ڪالونين جو وڏو حصو شامل ھيو. پيرو 1821ع ۾ اسپيني ارجنٽينا واري جنرل جوز ڊي سان مارٽن ۽ وينزويلائي اڳواڻ سائمن بوليوار جي فوجي مھمن ۽ اواڪوچو واري جنگ جي نتيجي ۾ باقاعده اسپين کان خود مختيار ٿيڻ جو اعلان ڪيو جنھن بعد پيرو 1824ع ۾ آزاد ٿيو.

ماقبل تاريخ ۽ آمريڪا جي دريافت کان اڳ

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو آمريڪا جي دريافت کان اڳ جو پيرو ۽ اينڊيس جي تهذيب
بنجر ٿيل سيوپئ ماٿري ۾ ڪارال/نورٽئ اهرام جي باقيات.

پيرو جي علائقي ۾ انساني موجودگي جا ابتدائي ثبوت، هواڪا پريتا آباديءَ ۾، لڳ ڀڳ 12,500 ق. م. جا آهن. [12] اينڊين سماج زراعت، آبپاشي ۽ ٽيريسنگ جا طريقا استعمال ڪندي، تي ٻڌل هئا. اُٺن جو پالڻ ۽ مڇي مارڻ پڻ اهم هئا. تنظيم بارٽر (شين جي باهمي تبادلي) ۽ ٻيهر ورڇ تي ٻڌل هئي، ڇاڪاڻ ته انهن سماجن ۾ مارڪيٽ يا ڪرنسي جو ڪو تصور نه هو. پيرو ۾ سڀ کان پراڻو ڄاتل سڃاتل پيچيده سماج ڪارال-سيوپئ تهذيب، پئسفڪ سمنڊ جي ساحل تي 3,000 ۽ 1,800 قبل مسيح جي وچ ۾ ترقي ڪئي. انهن شروعاتي ترقيات کان پوءِ آثار قديمه جي ثقافتن، جيڪي گهڻو ڪري پيرو ۾ ساحلي ۽ اينڊين علائقن جي چوڌاري ترقي ڪئي، جي جانشين ٿي.[13][14] ڪپسني سماج، انهن علائقن ۾، جيڪا هاڻي پيرو جو پئسفڪ ساحل آهي، [15] تقريباً 1000 کان 200 قبل مسيح تائين ترقي ڪيو، انڪا کان اڳ جي شروعاتي ثقافت جي هڪ مثال هئي.

جنگجوئن کي ڏيکاريندڙ، فيروزي ۽ سون مان ٺهيل موچي (Moche) ڪنن جون ڇليون (پهرين کان 800 عيسوي).

1500 کان 300 قبل مسيح تائين ترقي ڪندڙ چاوين ڪلچر شايد سياسي رجحان کان وڌيڪ مذهبي هو، انهن جو مذهبي مرڪز چاوين ڊي هوانٽر ۾ هو.[16] پهرين صدي جي شروعات ۾ چاوين ڪلچر جي زوال کان پوءِ، ايندڙ هزار سالن دوران ساحل ۽ جبلن تي مقامي، خاص ثقافتن جو هڪ سلسلو اڀريو ۽ گريو. ساحلي علائقن تي، انهن ۾ پيراڪاس، نازڪا، واري ۽ وڌيڪ شاندار چيمو ۽ موچي جون تهذيبون شامل هيون.

موچي تهذيب جا ماڻهو، [17] جيڪا پهرين هزار سال عيسوي ۾ پنهنجي عروج تي پهتا، انهن جي آبپاشي نظام لاءِ مشهور هئا جنهن انهن جي خشڪ زمين، انهن جي جديد سيرامڪ برتن، انهن جي بلند عمارتن ۽ ماهر ڌاتو جي ڪم کي زرخيز بڻايو. [18] چيمو انڪا کان اڳ جي تهذيب جا عظيم شهر تعمير ڪندڙ هئا؛ اتر پيرو جي ساحل تي پکڙيل ڀتين وارن شهرن واري، ڍڪيل ڪنفيڊريشن جي طور تي، چيمو تهذيب لڳ ڀڳ 1140ع کان 1450ع تائين ترقي ڪيو، [19] جو گاديءَ جو هنڌ ٽروجيلو کان ٻاهر چان چان ۾ هو. اينڊيز جبلن جي سلسلن ۾، پيرو ۽ بوليويا ٻنهي ۾ ٽٽيڪاڪا ڍنڍ جي ويجهو ٽيهوانڪو ڪلچر ۽ موجوده شهر آياڪوچو جي ويجهو واري ڪلچر، [20] 500 ۽ 1000ع جي وچ ۾ وڏيون شهري آباديون ۽ وسيع رياستي نظام پيدا ڪيا.[21][22]

ماچو پچو جو قلعو، پري ڪولمبين پيرو جو هڪ علامتي نشان


15هين صدي ۾، انڪا هڪ طاقتور رياست طور اڀري، جنهن هڪ صدي جي عرصي ۾، پري ڪولمبين آمريڪا ۾ سڀ کان وڏي سلطنت ٺاهي، جنهن جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ ڪسڪو هو.[23][24][25] "انڪا آف ڪسڪو" اصل ۾ ننڍي ۽ نسبتاً ننڍي نسلي گروهن مان هڪ، ڪيوچواس جي نمائندگي ڪندا هئا. آهستي آهستي، تيرهين صدي جي شروعات ۾، انهن پنهنجي پاڙيسرين کي وڌائڻ ۽ شامل ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. انڪا جي توسيع 15هين صدي جي وچ تائين سست هئي، جيستائين فتح جي رفتار، خاص طور تي شهنشاهه پچاڪوٽي جي حڪمراني هيٺ، تيز ٿيڻ شروع ٿي. [26] سندس ۽ سندس پٽ، ٽوپا انڪا يوپنڪي جي حڪمراني هيٺ، انڪا اينڊين علائقي جي اڪثريت تي ڪنٽرول حاصل ڪري ورتو، جنهن جي آبادي 9 کان 16 ملين هئي. پچاڪوٽي پنهنجي پري تائين پکڙيل سلطنت کي هلائڻ لاءِ قانونن جو هڪ جامع ضابطو پڻ جاري ڪيو، جڏهن ته سج جي ديوتا جي حيثيت سان پنهنجي مطلق دنياوي ۽ روحاني اختيار کي مضبوط ڪيو، جيڪو هڪ شاندار طور تي ٻيهر تعمير ٿيل ڪسڪو مان حڪومت ڪندو هو.[27]

From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, from southern Colombia to northern Chile, between the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Amazon rainforest in the east. The official language of the empire was Quechua,[28] although hundreds of local languages and dialects were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu which can be translated as "The Four Regions" or "The Four United Provinces." Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacred Huacas, but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti, the sun god and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama.[29] The Incas considered their King, the Sapa Inca, to be the "child of the sun."[30][31]

Conquest and colonial period

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو Spanish conquest of Peru ۽ Viceroyalty of Peru
Los funerales de Atahualpa (1867) by Luis Montero. Atahualpa was the last Sapa Inca, executed by the Spaniards on 29 August 1533.

Atahualpa (or Atahuallpa), the last Sapa Inca, became emperor when he defeated and executed his older half-brother Huáscar in a civil war sparked by the death of their father,[32] Inca Huayna Capac. In December 1532, a party of conquistadors (supported by the Chankas, Huancas, Cañaris and Chachapoyas as Indian auxiliaries) led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa in the Battle of Cajamarca.[33] After years of preliminary exploration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the region known as the Viceroyalty of Peru with its capital at Lima, which was then known as La Ciudad de los Reyes (The City of Kings). The conquest of Peru led to spin-off campaigns throughout the viceroyalty as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin as in the case of Spanish efforts to quell Amerindian resistance. The last Inca resistance was suppressed when the Spaniards annihilated the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba in 1572.

The Indigenous population dramatically collapsed overwhelmingly due to epidemic diseases introduced by the Spanish as well as exploitation and socio-economic change.[34] Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s with gold and silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce. With the discovery of the great silver and gold lodes at Potosí (present-day Bolivia) and Huancavelica, the viceroyalty flourished as an important provider of mineral resources. Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines. The commercial and population exchanges between Latin America and Asia undergone via the Manila Galleons transiting through Acapulco, had Callao at Peru as the furthest endpoint of the trade route in the Americas.[35] In relation to this, Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera, governor of Panama was also responsible for settling Zamboanga City in the Philippines by employing Peruvian soldiers and colonists.[36] African slaves were added to the labor population to expand the workforce. The expansion of a colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy paralleled the economic reorganization.

With the conquest started the spread of Christianity in South America; most people were forcefully converted to Catholicism, with Spanish clerics believing like Puritan divines of English colonies later that the Native Peoples "had been corrupted by the Devil, who was working "through them to frustrate" their foundations.[37] It only took a generation to convert the population. They built churches in every city and replaced some of the Inca temples with churches, such as the Coricancha in the city of Cusco. The church employed the Inquisition, making use of torture to ensure that newly converted Catholics did not stray to other religions or beliefs, and monastery schools, educating girls, especially of the Inca nobility and upper class, "until they were old enough either to profess [to become a nun] or to leave the monastery and assume the role ('estado') in the Christian society that their fathers planned to erect" in Peru.[38] Peruvian Catholicism follows the syncretism found in many Latin American countries, in which religious native rituals have been integrated with Christian celebrations.[39] In this endeavor, the church came to play an important role in the acculturation of the Natives, drawing them into the cultural orbit of the Spanish settlers.

Túpac Amaru II

By the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income. In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty. The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were suppressed. As a result of these and other changes, the Spaniards and their creole successors came to monopolize control over the land, seizing many of the best lands abandoned by the massive native depopulation. However, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. The Treaty of Tordesillas was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal. The need to ease communication and trade with Spain led to the split of the viceroyalty and the creation of new viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata at the expense of the territories that formed the Viceroyalty of Peru; this reduced the power, prominence and importance of Lima as the viceroyal capital and shifted the lucrative Andean trade to Buenos Aires and Bogotá, while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru.

Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the majority of modern-day countries of South America in the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru.[40] The conquest and colony brought a mix of cultures and ethnicities that did not exist before the Spanish conquered the Peruvian territory. Even though many of the Inca traditions were lost or diluted, new customs, traditions and knowledge were added, creating a rich mixed Peruvian culture.[39] Two of the most important Indigenous rebellions against the Spanish were that of Juan Santos Atahualpa in 1742, and Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in 1780 around the highlands near Cuzco.[41]

Independence

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Peruvian War of Independence
The Battle of Ayacucho was decisive in ensuring Peruvian independence.

In the early 19th century, while most South American nations were swept by wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite vacillated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish monarchy, independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar.

The economic crises, the loss of power of Spain in Europe, the war of independence in North America, and Native uprisings all contributed to a favorable climate to the development of emancipation ideas among the Criollo population in South America. However, the Criollo oligarchy in Peru enjoyed privileges and remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. The liberation movement started in Argentina where autonomous juntas were created as a result of the loss of authority of the Spanish government over its colonies.

After fighting for the independence of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, José de San Martín created the Army of the Andes and crossed the Andes in 21 days. Once in Chile, he joined forces with Chilean army General Bernardo O'Higgins and liberated the country in the battles of Chacabuco and Maipú in 1818.[42] On 7 September 1820, a fleet of eight warships arrived in the port of Paracas under the command of General José de San Martín and Thomas Cochrane, who was serving in the Chilean Navy. Immediately on 26 October, they took control of the town of Pisco. San Martín settled in Huacho on 12 November, where he established his headquarters while Cochrane sailed north and blockaded the port of Callao in Lima. At the same time in the north, Guayaquil was occupied by rebel forces under the command of Gregorio Escobedo. Because Peru was the stronghold of the Spanish government in South America, San Martín's strategy to liberate Peru was to use diplomacy. He sent representatives to Lima urging the Viceroy that Peru be granted independence, however, all negotiations proved unsuccessful.

San Martín proclaiming the independence of Peru. Painting by Juan Lepiani.

The Viceroy of Peru, Joaquín de la Pazuela named José de la Serna commander-in-chief of the loyalist army to protect Lima from the threatened invasion by San Martín. On 29 January, de la Serna organized a coup against de la Pazuela, which was recognized by Spain and he was named Viceroy of Peru. This internal power struggle contributed to the success of the liberating army. To avoid a military confrontation, San Martín met the newly appointed viceroy, José de la Serna, and proposed to create a constitutional monarchy, a proposal that was turned down. De la Serna abandoned the city, and on 12 July 1821, San Martín occupied Lima and declared Peruvian independence on 28 July 1821. He created the first Peruvian flag. Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia) remained as a Spanish stronghold until the army of Simón Bolívar liberated it three years later. José de San Martín was declared Protector of Peru. Peruvian national identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral.[43]

Simón Bolívar launched his campaign from the north, liberating the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the Battles of Carabobo in 1821 and Pichincha a year later. In July 1822, Bolívar and San Martín gathered in the Guayaquil Conference. Bolívar was left in charge of fully liberating Peru while San Martín retired from politics after the first parliament was assembled. The newly founded Peruvian Congress named Bolívar dictator of Peru, giving him the power to organize the military.

With the help of Antonio José de Sucre, they defeated the larger Spanish army in the Battle of Junín on 6 August 1824 and the decisive Battle of Ayacucho on 9 December of the same year, consolidating the independence of Peru and Upper Peru. Upper Peru was later established as Bolivia. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.[44]

19th century

[سنواريو]

Once independence was proclaimed, San Martín assumed military-political command of the free departments of Peru, under the title of Protector, according to a decree given on 3 August 1821. The works of the Protectorate contributed to the creation of the National Library (in favor of knowledge), the approval of the National Anthem, and the abolition of the mita (in favor of the indigenous people). On 27 December 1821, San Martín created three ministries: Ministry of State and Foreign Affairs, committing Juan García del Río; Ministry of War and Navy, to Bernardo de Monteagudo; and Ministry of Finance, to Hipólito Unanue.

From the 1840s to the 1860s Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla, through increased state revenues from guano exports.[45] In 1864, a Spanish expedition occupied the Chincha Islands (guano producers) and unleashed an international incident with great consequences in Peruvian internal politics, which led to a coup d'état against President Juan Antonio Pezet, Mariano's government. Peru, with the help of Bolivia, Chile and Ecuador, sent a declaration of war on Spain. After the battle of Callao on 2 May 1866, the Spanish Navy withdrew from Peru. The government of José Balta was lavish in infrastructure works (construction of the Central Railway) although the first signs of excess government spending were already perceived. By the 1870s the guano resources had been depleted, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.[46]

The Battle of Angamos, during the War of the Pacific

By 1859, some 41,000 Peruvians had died in the constant civil wars that shook the country since 1829. Thanks to the money from the sale of guano, Peru began to modernize with different public works such as railways; the civil and military bureaucracy grew; The indigenous people stopped paying tribute and the slaves achieved their freedom; The migration policy of Germans, Austrians, Irish and Italians began.

On 5 April 1879, Chile declared war on Peru, unleashing the Pacific War. The casus belli was the confrontation between Bolivia and Chile over a tax problem in which Peru was compromised by the Treaty of Defensive Alliance signed with Bolivia in 1873. However, Peruvian historiography is unanimous in maintaining that the deep cause of this war was Chile's ambition to take over the nitrate and guano territories of southern Peru. In the first stage of the war, the naval campaign, the Peruvian navy repelled the Chilean attack until 8 October 1879, the day in which the naval combat of Angamos was fought, where the Chilean navy with its ships Cochrane, Blanco Encalada, Loa and Covadonga cornered the monitor Huáscar, the main ship of the Peruvian navy commanded by Admiral AP Miguel Grau, who died in the fray and since then became Peru's greatest hero.

In 1879 Peru entered the War of the Pacific, which lasted until 1884. Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. The Peruvian Government tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Peruvian historiography is unanimous in maintaining that the deep cause of this war was Chile's ambition to take over the nitrate and guano territories of southern Peru and Bolivia.

Battle of Arica, painted by Juan Lepiani

Almost five years of war ended with the loss of the department of Tarapacá and the provinces of Tacna and Arica, in the Atacama region. Francisco Bolognesi and Miguel Grau are both renowned heros of the war. Originally Chile committed to a referendum for the cities of Arica and Tacna to be held years later, to self determine their national affiliation. However, Chile refused to apply the Treaty, and neither of the countries could determine the statutory framework. The War of the Pacific was the bloodiest war Peru has fought in. After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began. The government started to initiate a number of social and economic reforms to recover from the damage of the war. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s.

20th century

[سنواريو]
The signing of the Rio Protocol in January 1942

Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía. The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).[47] The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades. A final peace treaty in 1929, signed between Peru and Chile called the Treaty of Lima, returned Tacna to Peru. Between 1932 and 1933, Peru was engulfed in a year-long war with Colombia over a territorial dispute involving the Amazonas Department and its capital Leticia.

In 1941 Peru and Ecuador fought the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War, after which the Rio Protocol sought to formalize the boundary between those two countries. In a military coup on 29 October 1948, General Manuel A. Odría became president. Odría's presidency was known as the Ochenio. He came down hard on APRA, momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed a populist course that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social policies. At the same time, however, civil rights were severely restricted and corruption was rampant throughout his regime. Odría was succeeded by Manuel Prado Ugarteche. However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military junta, via a coup d'état led by Ricardo Pérez Godoy. Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won by Fernando Belaúnde Terry who assumed presidency until 1968. Belaúnde was recognized for his commitment to the democratic process.

Military Junta of 1968

On 3 October 1968 another coup d'état led by a group of officers led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado brought the army to power with the aim of applying a doctrine of "social progress and integral development", nationalist and reformist, influenced by the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (UNECLAC) theses on dependence and underdevelopment. Six days after the golpe, Velasco proceeded to nationalize the International Petroleum Corporation (IPC), the North American company that exploited Peruvian oil, and then launched a reform of the state apparatus, an agrarian reform. It was the biggest agrarian reform ever undertaken in Latin America: it abolished the latifunda system and modernized agriculture through a more equitable redistribution of land (90% of the peasants formed cooperatives or agricultural societies of social interest). Land was to be owned by those who cultivated it, and large landowners were expropriated. The only large properties allowed were cooperatives.

Between 1969 and 1976, 325,000 families received land from the state with an average size of 73.6 acre (29.8 هيڪٽر). The "revolutionary government" also planned massive investments in education, elevated the Quechua language – spoken by nearly half the population but hitherto despised by the authorities – to a status equivalent to that of Spanish and established equal rights for natural children. Peru wished to free itself from any dependence and carried out a third-world foreign policy. The United States responded with commercial, economic and diplomatic pressure. In 1973 Peru seemed to triumph over the financial blockade imposed by Washington by negotiating a loan from the International Development Bank to finance its agricultural and mining development policy. The relations with Chile became very tense after the coup d'état of the general Pinochet. General Edgardo Mercado Jarrin (Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Army) and Admiral Guillermo Faura Gaig (Minister of the Navy) both escaped assassination attempts within weeks of each other. In 1975 General Francisco Morales Bermúdez Cerruti seized power and broke with the policies of his predecessor. His regime occasionally participated in Operation Condor in collaboration with other American military dictatorships.[48][49]

President Alan García's economic policies distanced Peru from international markets further, resulting in lower foreign investment in the country.[50] After the country experienced chronic inflation, in mid-1985, the Peruvian sol was replaced by the inti, which itself was replaced by the nuevo sol in July 1991 (the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles). At the end of the 1980s, the per capita annual income of Peruvians fell to $720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru's GDP dropped 20%, with national reserves running a $900 million deficit. The economic turbulence of the time acerbated social tensions in Peru and partly contributed to the rise of violent rebel rural insurgent movements, like Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) and MRTA, which caused great havoc throughout the country.[51][52][53]

President Alberto Fujimori during his first term

The Peruvian armed forces, frustrated with the inability of the García administration to handle the nation's crises, drafted the Plan Verde, which involved the genocide of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians, the control or censorship of the media in Peru, and the establishment of a neoliberal economy controlled by a military junta.[54][55][56] Alberto Fujimori assumed the presidency in 1990 and, according to the head of the National Intelligence Service (SIN) Rospigliosi, an understanding was established between Fujimori, Vladimiro Montesinos, and some of the military officers involved in Plan Verde to abide by the military's demands prior to Fujimori's inauguration.[57][58][59] Fujimori would go on to adopt many of the policies outlined in Plan Verde, which led to a precitious drop in inflation from 7,650% at the start of 1990 to 139% in 1991 and 57% in 1992.[51][52][57] When Fujimori faced opposition to his reform efforts, he dissolved Congress, suspending the judiciary, arresting several opposition leaders and assuming full powers in the auto-golpe ("self-coup") of 5 April 1992.[60][57][61] He then revised the constitution, called new congressional elections, and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy. Nonetheless, these policies did not benefit the poorest much, and inequality persisted despite Fujimori's economic achievements.[59][62]

Fujimori's administration was dogged by insurgent groups, most notably Shining Path, which carried out attacks across the country throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Fujimori cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the insurgents: the Barrios Altos massacre and La Cantuta massacre by Government paramilitary groups, and the bombings of Tarata and Frecuencia Latina by Sendero Luminoso. Fujimori would also broaden the definition of terrorism in an effort to criminalize as many actions possible to persecute left-wing political opponents.[63] Using the terruqueo, a fearmongering tactic that was used to accuse opponents of terrorism, Fujimori established a cult of personality by portraying himself as a hero and made left-wing ideologies an eternal enemy in Peru.[63] Those incidents subsequently came to symbolize the human rights violations committed in the last years of violence.[64] His Programa Nacional de Población, 'National Population Program' also resulted with the forced sterilization of at least 300,000 poor and indigenous women.[58][65][66]

In early 1995, once again Peru and Ecuador clashed in the Cenepa War, but in 1998 the governments of both nations signed a peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them. In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went into a self-imposed exile, initially avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities.[67]

21st century

[سنواريو]

Peru tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth at the start of the 21st century,[67] though Fujimorism held power over much of Peruvian society through maintaining control of institutions and legislation created in the 1993 constitution, which was written by Fujimori and his supporters without opposition participation.[63] In spite of human rights progress since the time of insurgency, many problems are still visible and show the continued marginalization of those who suffered through the violence of the Peruvian conflict.[68] A caretaker government presided over by Valentín Paniagua took on the responsibility of conducting new presidential and congressional elections. Afterwards Alejandro Toledo became president in 2001 to 2006. On 28 July 2006, former president Alan García became President of Peru after winning the 2006 elections. In 2006, Alberto Fujimori's daughter, Keiko Fujimori, entered Peru's political arena to continue her father's legacy and espouse Fujimorism.[69][70][71] In May 2008, Peru became a member of the Union of South American Nations. In April 2009, former president Alberto Fujimori was convicted of human rights violations and sentenced to 25 years in prison for his role in killings and kidnappings by the Grupo Colina death squad during his government's battle against leftist guerrillas in the 1990s.[72]

President Pedro Pablo Kuczynski next to his vice-presidents, Martín Vizcarra and Mercedes Aráoz, a speech prior to his first impeachment vote.

During the presidencies of Ollanta Humala, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski and Martín Vizcarra, the right-wing Congress led by Keiko Fujimori obstructed much of the actions performed by the presidents.[73][74] On 5 June 2011, Ollanta Humala was elected president, with his cabinet being successfully censured by the Fujimorist Congress.[75] Beginning with Pedro Pablo Kuczynski, Congress used broadly interpreted impeachment wording in the 1993 Constitution of Peru that allowed impeachment of the president without cause[76][77][78][79] to place pressure on the president, forcing him to resign in 2018 amid various controversies surrounding his administration. Vice president Martín Vizcarra then assumed office in March 2018 with generally favorable approval ratings as he led the anti-corruption constitutional referendum movement.[80][81]

The COVID-19 pandemic resulted with Peru experiencing the highest death rate from COVID-19 in the world, exposing much of the inequality that persisted since the Fujimori administration[62] and triggering an economic crisis that led to Vizcara's removal from the presidency by Congress.[82] Widely seen as a coup by Congress, its head, the newly seated President Manuel Merino, faced protests across the country, and after five days, Merino resigned from the presidency.[83] Merino was replaced by President Francisco Sagasti, who led a provisional, centrist government, and enforced many of Vizcarra's former policies.[84] Elections were held on 11 April 2021, and Pedro Castillo of the Free Peru party won the first round, followed closely by Keiko Fujimori, with right-wing parties allied with Fujimori maintaining positions in Congress.[85]

Demonstrations in Lima during the 2022–2023 Peruvian political protests

On 28 July 2021, Pedro Castillo was sworn in as the new president of Peru after a narrow win in a tightly contested run-off election.[86] That same year, Peru celebrated the bicentenary of independence.[87] Castillo faced multiple impeachment votes during his presidency from the right-wing controlled Congress and on 7 December 2022, just hours before Congress was set to begin a third impeachment effort, Castillo tried to prevent this by attempting to dissolve the opposition-controlled legislature and create an "exceptional emergency government." In response, Congress quickly held an emergency session on the same day, during which it voted 101–6 (with 10 abstentions) to remove Castillo from office and replace him with Vice President Dina Boluarte. She became the country's first female president.[88][89] Castillo was arrested after trying to flee to the Mexican embassy and was charged with the crime of rebellion.[90]

The Boluarte government proved unpopular as she allied herself with the right-wing Congress and the military, betraying her constituents.[91][92] This resentment led to the 2022–2023 Peruvian political protests, which sought the removal of Boluarte and Congress, immediate general elections and the writing of a new constitution. Authorities responded to the protests violently, with the Ayacucho massacre and Juliaca massacre occurring at this time, resulting with the most violence experienced in the nation in over two decades.[91] The strong response by the political elite in Lima raised concerns that they sought to establish an authoritarian or civilian-military government.[91][92][93] On 10 October 2025, Peru’s congress removed President Dina Boluarte from office and Jose Jeri was sworn in as Peru’s interim president.[94]

جاگرافي

[سنواريو]

حڪومت ۽ سياست

[سنواريو]

معيشت

[سنواريو]

آباديات

[سنواريو]

ثقافت

[سنواريو]

پڻ ڏسو

[سنواريو]

پکيڙ پيرو جي ڪل پکيڙ 1284640 چورس ڪلوميٽر (495871 چورس ميل) ۽ آبادي 2 ڪروڙ 71 لک 36 هزار آهي. پيرو جي گاديءَ جو هنڌ ليما (Lima) ۽ سڀ کان مٿانهون هنڌ هواسڪاران (بلندي: 6768 ميٽر) آهي. هن ملڪ جي سرڪاري ٻولي اسپيني آهي، جڏهن ته ڪوئچوا ۽ آئمارا ٻوليون پڻ ڳالهايون وڃن ٿيون. هتي جي موسم خشڪ آهي ۽ مختلف علائقن جي آبهوا مختلف آهي.

وسيلا

[سنواريو]

پيرو جي مکيه زرعي پيداوار ۾ پٽاٽا، ڪيلو، مڪئي، جَوَ، ڪپهه، چانور، ڪڻڪ، ڪافي، ميوا ۽ ڀاڄيون شامل آهن ۽ مکيه صنعتن ۾ ٽيڪسٽائيل، فوڊ پروسيسنگ، هينڊي ڪرافٽ، لوهه، پيٽروليم، ريفائنري، سيمينٽ، چمڙي جون شيون، پلاسٽڪ، ڪيميائي شيون ۽ گاڏيون اچي وڃن ٿيون.[95]

حوالا

[سنواريو]
  1. ↑ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (September 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns". Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies. http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf. Retrieved 31 August 2017. آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 19 August 2008 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين.
  2. ↑ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns". French Politics 3 (3): 323–351. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087. ISSN 1476-3427. OCLC 6895745903. "Only in Latin America have all new democracies retained a pure presidential form, except for Peru (president-parliamentary) and Bolivia (assembly-independent).".
  3. ↑ "Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población Total, por Años Calendario y Edades Simples, 1950–2050" [Peru: Estimates and Projections of Total Population, by Calendar Years and Simple Ages, 1950-2050] (PDF) (ٻولي ۾ Spanish), National Institute of Statistics and Informatics, September 2009۔
  4. 1 2 "Peru", International Monetary Fund۔
  5. ↑ Quechua name used by government of Peru is Perú (see Quechua-language version of Peru Parliament website آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 30 July 2010 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين. and Quechua-language version of Peru Constitution [https://web.archive.org/web/20110205010758/http://www.congreso.gob.pe/_quechua/Constitucion.pdf) but common Quechua name is Piruw
  6. ↑ "Perú: País megadiverso" [Peru: Megadiverse country] (PDF) (ٻولي ۾ Spanish), Servicio Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas, اصل کان 22 June 2014 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل۔
  7. ↑ "World Economic and Financial Surveys, World Economic Outlook October 2015", www.imf.org۔
  8. ↑ "Peru Overview", World Bank, حاصل ڪيل 17 April 2017۔
  9. ↑ "Peru", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, اصل کان 7 July 2018 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 8 January 2018۔ اڻڄاتل پيراميٽر |dead-url= نظر انداز ڪيو ويو (مدد)
  10. ↑ David E. Castro Garro, "Módulo de capacitación en recursos genéticos y bioseguridad" [Training module on genetic resources and biosafety] (PDF) (ٻولي ۾ Spanish), Ministerio de Ambiente de la República de Perú, اصل کان 24 April 2018 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل۔
  11. ↑ McKercher, B. J. C. (2012) (en ۾). Routledge Handbook of Diplomacy and Statecraft. Routledge. ISBN 9781136664366. https://books.google.com.pe/books?id=EtCoAgAAQBAJ. "a Middle Power like Peru lack the diplomatic and other resources..."
  12. ↑ Dillehay, Tom D. (2017). Where the Land Meets the Sea. University of Texas Press. p. 4. ISBN 9781477311493. https://books.google.com/books?id=GIIlDwAAQBAJ. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
  13. ↑ "The Ancient Andes", History Guild (ٻولي ۾ en-GB), حاصل ڪيل 18 May 2025۔
  14. ↑ "UNESCO", whc.unesco.org, حاصل ڪيل 18 May 2025۔
  15. ↑ Cordy-Collins, Alana (1992). "Archaism or Tradition?: The Decapitation Theme in Cupisnique and Moche Iconography". Latin American Antiquity 3 (3): 206–220. doi:10.2307/971715.
  16. ↑ "Chavin (Archaeological Site)", UNESCO, اصل کان 8 May 2016 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 27 July 2014۔
  17. ↑ Beck, Roger B.; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naylor, Phillip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 0-395-87274-X. https://archive.org/details/mcdougallittellw00beck.
  18. ↑ "Mochica culture, pre-Inca in northern Peru", Sobre Peru, 11 September 2009, اصل کان 29 June 2016 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل۔
  19. ↑ "UNESCO 2", whc.unesco.org, حاصل ڪيل 18 May 2025۔
  20. ↑ Blom, Deborah E.; Janusek, John W. (2004). "Making Place: Humans as Dedications in Tiwanaku". World Archaeology 36: 123–141. doi:10.1080/0043824042000192623.
  21. ↑ Pre-Inca Cultures آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 3 November 2016 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين.. countrystudies.us.
  22. ↑ "UNESCO 3", whc.unesco.org, حاصل ڪيل 18 May 2025۔
  23. ↑ Rowe, John (1948). "The Kingdom of Chimor". Acta Americana.
  24. ↑ Dunnell, Tony (11 May 2019), "Ten Interesting Facts About The Inca Empire", SA Vacations (ٻولي ۾ en-US), حاصل ڪيل 18 May 2025۔
  25. ↑ The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui". Encyclopedia Britannica, 1 April 2024, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pachacuti-Inca-Yupanqui. Accessed 18 May 2025
  26. ↑ Demarest, Arthur Andrew; Conrad, Geoffrey W. (1984). Religion and Empire: The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–59. ISBN 0-521-31896-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=IqecX148zLsC&pg=PA57.
  27. ↑ Peru The Incas آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 3 November 2016 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين.
  28. ↑ Torero Fernández de Córdoba, Alfredo. (1970) "Lingüística e historia de la Sociedad Andina", Anales Científicos de la Universidad Agraria, VIII, 3–4, págs. 249–251. Lima: UNALM.
  29. ↑ "The Inca – All Empires", www.allempires.com, اصل کان 20 January 2012 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل۔
  30. ↑ "The Inca" at the Wayback Machine (archived 10 November 2009) The National Foreign Language Center at the University of Maryland. 29 May 2007. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
  31. ↑ "Inca: Empire, Religion & Civilization", HISTORY (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), 11 March 2015, حاصل ڪيل 18 May 2025۔
  32. ↑ Lavallé, Bernard (2004), "7 El fin de Atahualpa", Francisco Pizarro : Biografía de una conquista, Travaux de l'IFEA (ٻولي ۾ هسپانوي) (Lima: Institut français d’études andines): 123–139, آئي ايس بي اين 978-2-8218-2650-2, اصل کان 19 March 2024 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 19 March 2024۔
  33. ↑ "Battle of Cajamarca | Summary | Britannica", www.britannica.com (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), اصل کان 4 February 2021 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 19 March 2024۔
  34. ↑ Lovell, W. George (1992). "'Heavy Shadows and Black Night': Disease and Depopulation in Colonial Spanish America". Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82 (3): 426–443. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1992.tb01968.x.
  35. ↑ Schottenhammer, Angela (2019). "Connecting China with the Pacific World?". Orientierungen. Zeitschrift zur Kultur Asiens: 144. ISSN 0936-4099. https://www.academia.edu/44625493. Retrieved 27 May 2021. "The wreck excavation could prove that European style jewelry was being made in the Philippines. Some 56 intact storage jars were discovered. Investigations revealed that they had come from kilns in South China, Cochin China (Vietnam), and Siam (Thailand), and one was of Spanish design. The archaeology of the Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, consequently, also provides us with intriguing new insights into the trans-Pacific trade connection and the commodities involved. Each time a galleon arrived at Acapulco, a market, la feria, was organized. This attracted all kinds of people such as Indian peddlers, Mexican and Peruvian merchants, soldiers, the king's officials, and friars, as well as a few Chinese and some Filipinos. From Acapulco, the goods were transported into the hinterlands, into Mexico City, and various other places, including Peru. The Peruvian port at that time was Callao and the Ciudad de los Reyes, that is Lima, the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Generally speaking, much of what was not sold (rezagos) directly in Acapulco was redirected towards Peru. Peruvian ships, mainly loaded with silver, mercury, cacao from Guayaquil, and Peruvian wines, sailed to ports along the Mexican and Guatemalan coasts, returning with Asian goods and leftover cargo from the galleon ships. Besides Callao and Guayaquil, Paita was also frequently a port of call.".
  36. ↑ "Second book of the second part of the Conquests of the Filipinas Islands, and chronicle of the religious of our Father, St. Augustine", Zamboanga City History, اصل کان 28 February 2021 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 18 February 2021, "He (Governor Don Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera) brought a great reenforcement of soldiers, many of them from Perú, as he made his voyage to Acapulco from that kingdom."
  37. ↑ Russell Bourne, Gods of War, Gods of Peace (New York: Harcourt Books, 2002), 7–9.
  38. ↑ Kathryn Burns, Colonial Habits (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1999), 15–40.
  39. 1 2 حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named discover-peru.org2
  40. ↑ "Peru", countrystudies.us, اصل کان 3 November 2016 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 27 July 2014۔
  41. ↑ "Túpac Amaru II", Encyclopædia Britannica, اصل کان 3 June 2019 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 10 July 2018۔
  42. ↑ Scheina, 2003, Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899, p. 58.
  43. ↑ Gootenberg (1991) p. 12.
  44. ↑ Discover Peru (Peru cultural society). War of Independence آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 21 October 2016 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين.. Retrieved 28 July 2014
  45. ↑ Gootenberg (1993) pp. 5–6.
  46. ↑ Gootenberg (1993) p. 9.
  47. ↑ Klarén, Peter (2000). Peru: society and nationhood in the Andes. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 262–276, ISBN 0195069285.
  48. ↑ "Francisco Morales Bermudez, ex-Peruvian military ruler, dies at 100" (en-US ۾). Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. https://www.washingtonpost.com/obituaries/2022/07/16/morales-burmudez-peru-dies/.
  49. ↑ Brands, Hal (15 September 2010). "The United States and the Peruvian Challenge, 1968–1975". Diplomacy & Statecraft (Taylor & Francis) 21 (3): 471–490. doi:10.1080/09592296.2010.508418.
  50. ↑ "Welcome, Mr. Peruvian President: Why Alan García is no hero to his people", Council on Hemispheric Affairs (ٻولي ۾ en-US), 2 June 2010, اصل کان 18 April 2019 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 18 April 2019۔
  51. 1 2 حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Leonard-2013
  52. 1 2 حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ECLAC-1992
  53. ↑ Luis Rossell, Historias gráficas de la violencia en el Perú, 1980–1984, 2008
  54. ↑ Rospigliosi, Fernando (1996). Las Fuerzas Armadas y el 5 de abril: la percepción de la amenaza subversiva como una motivación golpista. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos. pp. 46–47.
  55. ↑ Gaussens, Pierre (2020). "The forced serilization of indigenous population in Mexico in the 1990s". Canadian Journal of Bioethics 3 (3): 180+. doi:10.7202/1073797ar. "a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention".
  56. ↑ Burt, Jo-Marie (September–October 1998). "Unsettled accounts: militarization and memory in postwar Peru". NACLA Report on the Americas (Taylor & Francis) 32 (2): 35–41. doi:10.1080/10714839.1998.11725657. "the military's growing frustration over the limitations placed upon its counterinsurgency operations by democratic institutions, coupled with the growing inability of civilian politicians to deal with the spiraling economic crisis and the expansion of the Shining Path, prompted a group of military officers to devise a coup plan in the late 1980s. The plan called for the dissolution of Peru's civilian government, military control over the state, and total elimination of armed opposition groups. The plan, developed in a series of documents known as the "Plan Verde," outlined a strategy for carrying out a military coup in which the armed forces would govern for 15 to 20 years and radically restructure state-society relations along neoliberal lines.".
  57. 1 2 3 حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Alfredo3
  58. 1 2 حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Rospigliosi-1996b
  59. 1 2 حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Avilés-2009
  60. ↑ Cameron, Maxwell A. (June 1998). "Latin American Autogolpes: Dangerous Undertows in the Third Wave of Democratisation". Third World Quarterly (Taylor & Francis) 19 (2): 228. doi:10.1080/01436599814433. "the outlines for Peru's presidential coup were first developed within the armed forces before the 1990 election. This Plan Verde was shown to President Fujimorti after the 1990 election before his inauguration. Thus, the president was able to prepare for an eventual self-coup during the first two years of his administration".
  61. ↑ "El "Plan Verde" Historia de una traición". Oiga 647. 12 July 1993. https://www.scribd.com/document/310286817/El-Plan-Verde. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
  62. 1 2 حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Mitrovic-2021
  63. 1 2 3 حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Villalba-2022
  64. ↑ Black, Jan (2018). Latin America Its Problems and Its Promise: A Multidisciplinary Introduction. Taylor and Francis. p. 355. ISBN 9780429974694. https://books.google.com/books?id=JRdWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT355. Retrieved 19 March 2023. "In September 1992, a small, elite squad within Peru's antiterrorist police (established under Garcia) captured the Shining Path leader, Abimael Guzman. Within the next few weeks, using information in Guzman's hideout, police arrested more than 1,000 suspected guerillas. During the next few years, the Shining Path was decimated."
  65. ↑ Gaussens, Pierre (2020). "The forced serilization of indigenous population in Mexico in the 1990s". Canadian Journal of Bioethics 3 (3): 180+. doi:10.7202/1073797ar. "a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention".
  66. ↑ Back, Michele; Zavala, Virginia (2018). Racialization and Language: Interdisciplinary Perspectives From Perú. Routledge. pp. 286–291. https://repositoriodigital.bnp.gob.pe/bnp/recursos/2/html/Racismo-y-lenguaje/286/. Retrieved 4 August 2021. "At the end of the 1980s, a group of military elites secretly developed an analysis of Peruvian society called El cuaderno verde. This analysis established the policies that the following government would have to carry out in order to defeat Shining Path and rescue the Peruvian economy from the deep crisis in which it found itself. El cuaderno verde was passed onto the national press in 1993, after some of these policies were enacted by President Fujimori. ... It was a program that resulted in the forced sterilization of Quechua-speaking women belonging to rural Andean communities. This is an example of 'ethnic cleansing' justified by the state, which claimed that a properly controlled birth rate would improve the distribution of national resources and thus reduce poverty levels. ... The Peruvian state decided to control the bodies of 'culturally backward' women, since they were considered a source of poverty and the seeds of subversive groups"
  67. 1 2 حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named The Economist-2007
  68. ↑ White, Gavin David (2009). "Displacement, decentralisation and reparation in post-conflict Peru". Forced Migration Review. http://www.fmreview.org/protracted/white.html. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
  69. ↑ Ortiz de Zárate, Roberto (6 June 2016), "Keiko Fujimori Higuchi", Barcelona Centre for International Affairs, اصل کان 9 December 2022 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 21 February 2021۔
  70. ↑ "Fujimori 'to run for presidency'". BBC. 20 September 2004. https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3673082.stm.
  71. ↑ Forero, Juan (9 April 2006). "Fujimori's Daughter Polishes Her Jailed Father's Image on the Road to Congress in Peru" (en-US ۾). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/09/world/americas/fujimoris-daughter-polishes-her-jailed-fathers-image-on-the.html.
  72. ↑ "Peru's Fujimori sentenced to 25 years prison". Reuters. 7 April 2009. https://www.reuters.com/article/bondsNews/idUSN0746237820090407.
  73. ↑ Flannery, Nathaniel Parish, "Political Risk Analysis: How Will Peru's Economy Perform In 2017?", Forbes (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), اصل کان 9 December 2022 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 9 December 2022۔
  74. ↑ "The Political Limits of Presidential Impeachment: Lessons from Latin America", German Institute for Global and Area Studies (ٻولي ۾ en-GB), 2021, اصل کان 9 December 2022 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 9 December 2022۔
  75. ↑ "Peru's Prime Minister Ana Jara deposed over spy row". BBC. BBC News. 31 March 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-32129407.
  76. ↑ حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named PROFE92
  77. ↑ حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Taj-2021
  78. ↑ حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Reuters-2021
  79. ↑ حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Tegel-2021
  80. ↑ Tegel, Simeon (12 August 2018). "Corruption scandals have ensnared 3 Peruvian presidents. Now the whole political system could change." (en ۾). The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/corruption-scandals-have-ensnared-3-peruvian-presidents-now-the-whole-political-system-could-change/2018/08/11/0cd43ab0-9a82-11e8-a8d8-9b4c13286d6b_story.html.
  81. ↑ "Peru's Vizcarra Begins Presidency With 57 Pct Approval Rating". U.S. News & World Report. 15 April 2018. https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2018-04-15/perus-vizcarra-begins-presidency-with-57-pct-approval-rating.
  82. ↑ "Peruvian Congress votes to impeach President Martín Vizcarra", BBC News, 10 November 2020, اصل کان 28 August 2021 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 17 August 2021۔
  83. ↑ "Peru's President Merino resigns after deadly crackdown on protesters", BBC News, 16 November 2020, اصل کان 3 October 2021 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 17 August 2021۔
  84. ↑ "Francisco Sagasti sworn in as interim Peruvian leader", BBC News, 18 November 2020, اصل کان 16 November 2020 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 17 August 2021۔
  85. ↑ "Pedro Castillo declared president-elect of Peru", BBC News, 20 July 2021, اصل کان 13 August 2021 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 17 August 2021۔
  86. ↑ "Peru: Pedro Castillo sworn in as president", DW.com, 28 July 2021, اصل کان 13 August 2021 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 17 August 2021۔
  87. ↑ "The bicentennial of Peru's independence: A historic opportunity", The Jakarta Post (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), اصل کان 20 January 2022 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 20 January 2022۔
  88. ↑ "Peru's President Accused of Coup After Move to Dissolve Congress" (en ۾). Bloomberg.com. 7 December 2022. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-12-07/peru-president-dissolves-congress-hours-before-impeachment-vote.
  89. ↑ "Peru's President Pedro Castillo replaced by Dina Boluarte after impeachment" (en-GB ۾). BBC News. 7 December 2022. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-63895505.
  90. ↑ "Peru president removed from office and charged with 'rebellion' after alleged coup attempt", The Guardian (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), 8 December 2022, اصل کان 7 December 2022 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 8 December 2022۔
  91. 1 2 3 حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Banda-2023
  92. 1 2 حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Patriau-2023
  93. ↑ "Perú Libre presentará moción de interpelación contra ministro del Interior", La Republica (ٻولي ۾ هسپانوي), 4 January 2023, اصل کان 12 January 2023 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 12 January 2023۔
  94. ↑ Yeung, Mauricio Torres, Jessie (10 October 2025). "Peru’s president is removed from office after string of scandals" (en ۾). CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2025/10/10/americas/peru-president-dina-boluarte-removed-intl-hnk.
  95. ↑ ڪتاب: انسائيڪلوپيڊيا سنڌيانا، جلد ٽيون، ڇپيندڙ: سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي (ISBN 978-969-9098-40-6) سال: 2011

ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا

[سنواريو]

سانچو:Peru topics سانچو:Inca Empire topics

10°S 76°W / 10°S 76°W / -10; -76

  1. ↑ حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named a
  2. ↑ The 2017 National Census included, for the first time, a question of ethnic self-identification that was addressed to people aged 12 and over considering elements such as their ancestry, their customs and their family origin in order to visualize and better understand the cultural reality of the country.
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