مواد ڏانھن هلو

سنڌو ماٿري جي تهذيب جي ايجادن ۽ دريافتن جي فهرست

کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
سنڌو ماٿريءَ جي تهذيب جو دائرو

سنڌو ماٿري جي تهذيب جي ايجادن ۽ دريافتن جي هن فهرست ۾ سنڌو ماٿريءَ جي تھذيب، هڪ قديم تھذيب جيڪا برونز جي دور ۾ سنڌو نديءَ جي عام علائقي ۽ گھاگر-هاڪرا نديءَ جي چوڌاري، جيڪا اڄ پاڪستان ۽ اتر اولهه ڀارت آهي، ۾ ڦهليل هئي، جي ٽيڪنالاجي ۽ تهذيبي ڪاميابين جي فهرست ڏنل آهي.

ايجادون

[سنواريو]
Computer-aided reconstruction of Harappan coastal settlement in Pakistan on the westernmost outreaches of the civilisation
An ancient well, and the city drainage canals, in Lothal, Gujarat, India
  • Button, ornamental: Buttons—made from seashell—were used in the Indus Valley Civilisation for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.[1] Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing by using a thread.[1] Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."[2]
  • Shipyard: The world's oldest shipyard has been found in Lothal. It is situated 80 km south of Ahmedabad in Gujarat.[3][4]
  • Cockfighting: Cockfighting was a pastime in the Indus Valley Civilisation in what today is Pakistan by 2000 BCE[5] and one of the uses of the fighting cock. The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008)—on the origins of cockfighting—holds: "The game fowl is probably the nearest to the Indian red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), from which all domestic chickens are believed to be descended...The sport was popular in ancient times in the Indian subcontinent, China, the Persian Empire, and other Eastern countries and was introduced into Greece in the time of Themistocles (c. 524–460 BCE). The sport spread throughout Asia Minor and Sicily. For a long time the Romans affected to despise this "Greek diversion," but they ended up adopting it so enthusiastically that the agricultural writer Columella (1st century CE) complained that its devotees often spent their whole patrimony in betting at the side of the pit."[6]
  • Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley Civilisation's archaeological site at Mohenjo Daro in Pakistan and Dholavira, India.[7][8][9] The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure.[7] The early centuries immediately before the common era saw the Buddhists and the Jains of India adapt the stepwells into their architecture.[7] Both the wells and the form of ritual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism.[7] Rock-cut step wells in the subcontinent date from 200-400 CE.[10] Subsequently, the wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) were constructed.[10]
  • Circular saw: Excavated in Lothal.[11][12]
  • Bow Drill: Bow drills were used in Mehrgarh between the 4th and 5th millennium BC.[13] This bow drill—used to drill holes into lapis lazuli and carnelian—was made of green jasper.[13] Similar drills were found in other parts of the Indus Valley Civilisation and Iran one millennium later.[13]
  • Public Baths: The earliest public baths are found in the ruins in of the Indus Valley Civilisation. According to John Keay, the "Great Bath" of Mohenjo Daro in present-day Pakistan was the size of 'a modest municipal swimming pool', complete with stairs leading down to the water at each one of its ends.[14]
  • Grid Plan: Rehman Dheri contains the earliest evidence of a grid-planned city in south Asia dated c. 3300 BCE.[15][16] By 2600 BC, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, and other major cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation, were built with blocks divided by a grid of straight streets, running north–south and east–west. Each block was subdivided by small lanes.[17]
  • Flush Toilet: Mohenjo-Daro circa 2800 BC is cited as having some of the most advanced, with toilets built into outer walls of homes. These toilets were Western-style, albeit a primitive form, with vertical chutes, via which waste was disposed of into cesspits or street drains.[18][19]
  • Drainage System: The Indus Valley Civilisation had advanced sewerage and drainage systems. All houses in the major cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had access to water and drainage facilities. Waste water was directed to covered gravity sewers, which lined the major streets.[20]
  • Distillation: A terracota distillation apparatus in the Indus Valley in West Pakistan dates from around 3000 BCE.[21]
  • Cotton industry: The Indus cotton industry was well-developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used until the industrialization of India.[22]
  • Public Litter bins: Archaeologists have found several brick containers that were strategically located along the street junctions of Mohenjo-Daro specifically for garbage disposal.[23][24]
  • Dentistry: The evidence of dentistry being practised as far back as 7000 BCE.[25] An IVC site in Mehrgarh indicates that this form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills operated, perhaps, by skilled bead crafters. The reconstruction of this ancient form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective.[26]
  • Touchstone: Found in excavations from Banawali, Haryana.[27][28]
  • Signboard: One of the most significant discoveries at Dholavira was made in one of the side rooms of the northern gateway of the city, and is generally known as the Dholavira Signboard. The Harappans had arranged and set pieces of the mineral gypsum to form ten large symbols or letters on a big wooden board.[29] At some point, the board fell flat on its face. The wood decayed, but the arrangement of the letters survived. The letters of the signboard are comparable to large bricks that were used in nearby walls. Each sign is about 37 cm (15 in) high and the board on which the letters were inscribed was about 3 m (9.8 ft) long.[30] The inscription is one of the longest in the Indus script, with one symbol appearing four times, and this and its large size and public nature make it a key piece of evidence cited by scholars arguing that the Indus script represents full literacy. A four-sign inscription with large letters on a sand stone is also found at this site, considered the first of such inscriptions on sand stone at any of the Harappan sites.[31]
  • هائيڊرولڪ انجنيئرنگ
One of the water reservoirs, with steps, at Dholavira
  • آر.ايس.بسٽ، جوائنٽ ڊائريڪٽر جنرل (ريٽائرڊ)، آرڪيالاجيڪل سروي آف انڊيا جو چوڻ آهي ته "هڙپا جي ڍولاويرا تھذيب جو هڪ قسم جو ڪارائتو نظام، پاڻيءَ جي بچاءُ، فصلن ۽ ذخيرو ڪرڻ لاءِ تيار ڪيو ويو.[32] [33] انهن جي ترقي يافته هائيڊرولڪ انجنيئرنگ جي باري ۾ فصيح طور تي ڳالهائي ٿو، ٽئين صدي ق. م. ۾ ٽيڪنالاجيءَ جي حالت ڏني وئي." ڍولاويرا جي منفرد خصوصيتن مان هڪ نفيس پاڻي جي بچاءُ جو نظام آهي، چينلن ۽ ذخيرن جو، جيڪو دنيا ۾ سڀ کان اول ڪٿي به ملي ٿو، مڪمل طور تي پٿر مان ٺهيل آهي.[34] شهر ۾ وڏا وڏا ذخيرا هئا، جن مان ٽي ڳوليا ويا آهن.[35] اها مينهن جي تازي پاڻي کي گڏ ڪرڻ لاء[36] يا ٻن ويجهن ندين مان وهيل پاڻي ذخيرو ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويا.[37] اها واضح طور تي ڪڇ جي علائقي جي ريگستاني موسم ۽ حالتن جي جواب ۾ آيو، جتي برسات کان بغير ڪيترائي سال گذري سگهندا هئا. هڪ موسمي وهڪرو جيڪو ماڳ جي ويجهو اتر-ڏکڻ طرف وهندو هو، پاڻي گڏ ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪيترن ئي هنڌن تي بند ڪيو ويو هو.
  • ڊيم: جديد پٿر جي دور جي مهرڳڙهه کان اڳ واري هڙپائي مرحلي ۾ (7000-3200 ق.م) ماڻهن سنڌو درياهه ۽ بلوچستان جي جبلن جي وچ ۾ ڪڇ جي نيم خشڪ علائقي ۾ مينهن ۽ طوفاني پاڻي کي روڪڻ لاءِ بند نالي هڪ پاڻي ذخيرو ڪرڻ وارو نظام ٺاهيو هو، جتي موسمي بولان ندي وهندي هئي. وهندو آهي. پٿر جون ديوارون درياءَ جي ٿلھين تي ٺھيل ھيون ته جيئن ريزروائر ڊيم جو ڪم ڪرڻ، پاڻيءَ جي وهڪري کي محدود ڪرڻ ۽ پاڻيءَ کي آبپاشي لاءِ واهن ۾ موڙڻ.[38][39][40]
  • اسٽيڊيم: دنيا جو سڀ کان اوائلي اسٽيڊيم جنهن کي ڇت واري اسٽينڊ سان "ڍولاويرا" ۽ "جوني ڪران" ۾ تعمير ڪيو ويو.[41] قديم ماڳ تي ٻه اسٽيڊيم جي نشاندهي ڪئي وئي آهي، هڪ کي هڪ رسمي ميدان سمجهيو ويندو آهي، ٻيو، هڪ ننڍڙو اسٽيڊيم آهي. جوني ڪوران ۾ عام ماڻهن ۽ اشرافيه لاءِ ٻه الڳ اسٽيڊيم دريافت ڪيا ويا آهن.[42] [43] [44]
  • ڪانسي جو مجسمو: موهن جي دڙي جي ناچندڙ ڇوڪري جو تعلق هڙپائي تهذيب سان آهي، جيڪو 2500 ق.م. جو آهي.[45][46]
  • لوسٽ موم جي ڪاسٽنگ: بلوچستان جي علائقي مهر ڳڙهه مان 6000 سال پراڻي ٽامي جي ”ويل“ تعويذ جو تفصيلي، مڪمل فيلڊ فوٽوولومينينس مطالعو، تاريخ جي هن دور بابت ڪيترن ئي نون حقيقتن جا دروازا کولي ڇڏيا آهن. "اپانيما" (Ipanema)، قديم مواد جي مطالعي لاءِ يورپي مرڪز، پاران ڪيل هي مطالعو يقين رکي ٿو ته هي "گم ٿيل موم" کاسٽنگ ٽيڪنڪ جو سڀ کان پراڻو سڃاتل مثال آهي، ڌات جي تاريخ ۾ سڀ کان اهم جدت مان هڪ آهي.[47] [48]
  • شيمپو: "بناوالي"، هريانا (2750-2500 BCE) جي اڳ-هڙپائي سطح ۾ شيڪاڪائي جي صابن ۽ آملا (هندستاني بيري) سان مليل شيمپو جا نشان ظاهر ڪيا ويا آهن، جيڪي هربل شيمپو ٺاهيندا هئا، ڏکڻ ايشيا جي حفظان صحت جي قديم جڙ کي ظاهر ڪرڻ ٿا.[49]
  • مورڊنٽ (ڊائي فڪسنگ): رنگن کي پڪو ڪرڻ لاءِ مورڊنٽ سنڌو ماٿري جي تهذيب کان وٺي استعمال ڪيا ويا، ان ۾ ڪپڙي جي رنگن تي هندستاني مهارت جو مظاهرو ڪيو ويو، جيڪو مغربي ڪيميائي رنگن جي ايجاد تائين بي مثال هو.[50]
  • پٿر جا سامان: قديم ترين پٿر جا سامان، چيني مٽيءَ جا اڳوڻا، سنڌو ماٿريءَ جي تهذيبي ماڳن هڙپا ۽ موهن جي دڙي تي درج ٿيل آهن، اهي پٿر جون چوڙيون ٺاهڻ ۾ استعمال ٿيندا هئا.[51][52][53]
  • پٺو (ست پٿر): هڪ هندستاني برصغير ​​جي راند جنهن کي "پٺو" پڻ سڏيو ويندو آهي، ڳوٺاڻن علائقن ۾ کيڏيو ويندو آهي ۽ ان جي شروعات سنڌو ماٿري جي تهذيب مان آهي.[54]
  • انگريزي بانڊ: هن بانڊ ۾ متبادل اسٽريچنگ ۽ هيڊنگ ڪورسز آهن، جن ۾ هيڊر اسٽريچرز جي وچ واري نقطي تي مرڪز هوندا آهن ۽ هر متبادل ڪورس ۾ ترتيب ڏنل هوندا آهن. ڏکڻ ايشيا ۽ دنيا ۾ ڪٿي به، نام نهاد انگريزي بانڊ سرن سان تعمير ڪرڻ ۾، هڙپائي فن تعمير جو پهريون استعمال هو.
  • آري، جديد: جديد ڏندن سان سچي آري هڪ هڙپائي ايجاد هئي.[55]
  • سُئيءَ جي اک: سُئيءَ جي اک هڪ ٻي هڙپائي ايجاد هئي.[56]
  • نقشي ٿيل داڻا (Etched Carnelian beads): ھڪ قسم جي قديم آرائشي موتي آھن جيڪي ڪارنيلين مان ٺاھيون وينديون آھن جن کي اڇي رنگ ۾ ٺاھيل ھوندي آھي. اهي 3 صدي قبل مسيح ۾ هڙپا جي رهواسين پاران تيار ڪيل الڪلائن-ايچنگ جي ٽيڪنڪ جي مطابق ٺاهيا ويا هئا ۽ وڏي پيماني تي اوڀر ۾ چين کان اولهه ۾ يونان تائين پکڙيل هئا.[57][58][59]
  • تيار ٿيل هاٿي ڏند جون شيون: هاٿي ڏند جون تيار ٿيل شيون جهڙوڪ ڪوهل اسٽيڪ، پن، اوز، ٿلها، ٽگل، ڪنگڻ، رانديڪا، پاسا، جڙيل ۽ ٻيا ذاتي زيور ان جي اصليت هڙپائي ماڳن مان سمجهيا وڃن ٿا.

دريافتون

[سنواريو]
  • قيمتي پٿر ۽ لپيس لازولي: 7570 ق.م. جا لپيس لازولي نوادرات ڀريانا مان مليا آهن، جيڪو سنڌو ماٿري جي تهذيب جو قديم ترين ماڳ آهي.
  • تل جو تيل: تل جا ٻج پهرين فصلن مان هڪ هئا جيڪي تيل لاءِ پروسيس ڪيا ويا هئا ۽ ان سان گڏ ابتدائي مصالحن مان هڪ هئا. تِل سنڌو ماٿري جي تهذيب دوران پوکيا ويندا هئا ۽ تيل جو مکيه فصل هو. اهو غالباً 2500 ق.م. ڌاري ۾ ميسوپوٽيميا ڏانهن برآمد ڪيو ويندو هو.
  • پشمينا: هڙپا کان سنڌو ماٿريءَ جي تهذيب جي زائل ٿيل ٽامي جي آثارن مان دريافت ڪيل اون جي ريشيءَ جا نمونا ڏاڍا سٺا آهن ۽ پشمينا ۽ شتوش جهڙا آهن.

پڻ ڏسو

[سنواريو]

حوالا

[سنواريو]
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Hesse, Rayner W. & Hesse (Jr.), Rayner W. (2007). Jewelry making Through History: An Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. 35. ISBN 0-313-33507-9.
  2. ↑ McNeil, Ian (1990). An encyclopedia of the history of technology. Taylor & Francis. 852. ISBN 0-415-01306-2.
  3. ↑ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Archaeological remains of a Harappa Port-Town, Lothal - UNESCO World Heritage Centre". whc.unesco.org. حاصل ڪيل 2021-11-24. 
  4. ↑ Animesh Ray. Maritime India: Ports and Shipping. p. 4. "Lothal is the oldest and most important dockyard unearthed by excavation in India." 
  5. ↑ Sherman, David M. (2002). Tending Animals in the Global Village. Blackwell Publishing. 46. ISBN 0-683-18051-7.
  6. ↑ Cockfighting. Encyclopædia Britannica 2008
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Livingston & Beach, 20
  8. ↑ The Lost River by Michel Danino. Penguin India 2010
  9. ↑ Purnima Mehta Bhatt (16 December 2014). Her Space, Her Story: Exploring the Stepwells of Gujarat. Zubaan. ISBN 9789384757083. https://books.google.com/books?id=tWmiDAAAQBAJ. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Livingston & Beach, page xxiii
  11. ↑ Raj Pruthi (2004). Prehistory and Harappan Civilization. APH Publishing. pp. 185. ISBN 978-81-7648-581-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=uRMGDmdE9FkC&pg=PA185. 
  12. ↑ Rebecca Kraft Rector (15 July 2016). The Early River Valley Civilizations. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. pp. 45. ISBN 978-1-4994-6328-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=3pZhDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA45. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Kulke, Hermann & Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). A History of India. Routledge. 22. ISBN 0-415-32920-5.
  14. ↑ Keay, John (2001), India: A History, 13–14, Grove Press, ISBN 0-8021-3797-0.
  15. ↑ "Rehman Dheri: One of the earliest planned cities in South Asia | Harappa". www.harappa.com. حاصل ڪيل 2021-03-10. 
  16. ↑ Durrani, F.A.; Ali, Ihsan; Erdosy, G. (1995). "New Perspectives on Indus Urbanism from Rehman Dheri". East and West 45 (1/4): 81–96. ISSN 0012-8376. https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757206. 
  17. ↑ Jane McIntosh, The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives ; ABC-CLIO, 2008; ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2 ; pp. 231, 346.
  18. ↑ Teresi et al. 2002
  19. ↑ Gray, Harold Farnsworth (1940). "Sewerage in Ancient and Mediaeval Times". Sewage Works Journal 12 (5): 939–946. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25029094. 
  20. ↑ Arthur Coterell (1980). The Encyclopedia of Ancient Civilizations. Rainbird Publishers. pp. 176–178. ISBN 0-7112-0036-X. 
  21. ↑ Rhind, Jennifer Peace; Pirie, David (2012). Essential Oils: A Handbook for Aromatherapy Practice. Singing Dragon. p. 14. ISBN 9781848190894. 
  22. ↑ Wisseman & Williams, p. 127
  23. ↑ Kenoyer, Jonathan M.; Heuston, Kimberley Burton (2005) (en ۾). The Ancient South Asian World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195222432. https://books.google.com/books?id=7CjvF88iEE8C&q=mohenjo+daro+garbage+bins&pg=PA53. 
  24. ↑ "World's only surviving Bronze Age metropolis in Pakistan faces ruin" (en-GB ۾). Daily Telegraph. 2013-10-13. ISSN 0307-1235. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/environment/archaeology/10357899/Worlds-only-surviving-Bronze-Age-metropolis-in-Pakistan-faces-ruin.html. 
  25. ↑ Coppa, A. et al. 2006. "Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry" (PDF). Nature. Volume 440. 6 April 2006.
  26. ↑ MSNBC (2008). Dig uncovers ancient roots of dentistry.
  27. ↑ Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. pp. 152–. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA152. 
  28. ↑ Shannon L. Kenny (12 April 2011). Gold: A Cultural Encyclopedia: A Cultural Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 264–. ISBN 978-0-313-38431-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=TBGzEK4laJ0C&pg=PA264. 
  29. ↑ Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford University Press. 1998
  30. ↑ Possehl, Gregory. (2004). The Indus Civilization: A contemporary perspective, New Delhi: Vistaar Publications, ISBN 81-7829-291-2, p.70.
  31. ↑ Subramanian, T. "The rise and fall of a Harappan city". The Archaeology News Network. حاصل ڪيل 3 June 2016. 
  32. ↑ Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. New Delhi: Pearson Education India. pp. 155 bottom. ISBN 978-813-17-1120-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC. 
  33. ↑ "Dholavira excavations throw light on Harappan civilization". United News of India (Indian Express). 25 June 1997. http://www.expressindia.com/news/ie/daily/19970625/17650493.html. 
  34. ↑ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Dholavira: A Harappan City - UNESCO World Heritage Centre". whc.unesco.org. 
  35. ↑ McIntosh, Jane (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley : New Perspectives. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 84. ISBN 978-157-60-7907-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&q=The+Ancient+Indus+Valley. 
  36. ↑ "Dholavira excavations throw light on Harappan civilization". United News of India (Indian Express). 25 June 1997. http://www.expressindia.com/news/ie/daily/19970625/17650493.html. 
  37. ↑ Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. New Delhi: Pearson Education India. p. 155. ISBN 978-813-17-1120-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC. 
  38. ↑ "Developments in water dams and water harvesting systems throughout history in different civilizations" (PDF). 
  39. ↑ "DAMS IN ANCIENT INDIA" (PDF). 
  40. ↑ "The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives" (PDF). 
  41. ↑ Dikshit, K. N. (2003). Puratattva no.34. https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.87942. 
  42. ↑ Rawat, Yadubirsingh (January 2015). "Coastal Sites: Possible Port Towns Of Harappan time in Gujarat" (en ۾). Port Towns of Gujarat. https://www.academia.edu/30609867. 
  43. ↑ Bisht, Ravindra Singh (en ۾). Dholavira and Banawali: Two Different Paradigms of the Harappan Urbis Forma. https://www.academia.edu/10187578. 
  44. ↑ Possehl, Gregory L. (2002) (en ۾). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 9780759101722. https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC&q=dholavira+stadium&pg=PA69. 
  45. ↑ "National Museum, New Delhi". www.nationalmuseumindia.gov.in. وقت 2015-09-16 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  46. ↑ "The Bronze Age | Boundless Art History". 
  47. ↑ "Mehrgarh Wheel Amulet Analysis Yields Many Secrets". www.harappa.com. حاصل ڪيل 2018-08-17. 
  48. ↑ "This 6,000-year-old amulet is the oldest example of a technology still used by NASA - The Washington Post". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2016/11/15/this-6000-year-old-amulet-is-the-oldest-example-of-a-technology-still-used-by-nasa/. 
  49. ↑ Bisht (1993). "Paleobotanical and pollen analytical investigations". Indian Archaeology a Review 1993-1994: 143–144. http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201993-94%20A%20Review.pdf. 
  50. ↑ "Indian Textiles: Nature & Making - The Victoria and Albert Museum". Google Arts & Culture. حاصل ڪيل 2021-02-14. 
  51. ↑ Satyawadi, Sudha (July 1, 1994). Proto-Historic Pottery of Indus Valley Civilization; Study of Painted Motif. D.K. Printworld. pp. 324. ISBN 978-8124600306. 
  52. ↑ Blackman, M. James (1992). The Production and Distribution of Stoneware Bangles at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa as Monitored by Chemical Characterization Studies. Madison, WI, USA: Prehistory Press. pp. 37–44. 
  53. ↑ Mark Kenoyer, Jonathan (1998). Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford University Press. pp. 260. 
  54. ↑ "Terra cotta discs | Harappa". www.harappa.com. حاصل ڪيل 2021-03-07. 
  55. ↑ Vibha, Tripathi (2018). "Metals and Metallurgy in Harappan Civilization". Indian Journal of History of Science 53 (3). doi:10.16943/ijhs/2018/v53i3/49460. 
  56. ↑ Vibha, Tripathi (2018). "Metals and Metallurgy in Harappan Civilization". Indian Journal of History of Science 53 (3). doi:10.16943/ijhs/2018/v53i3/49460. 
  57. ↑ For the etching technique, see MacKay, Ernest (1925). "Sumerian Connexions with Ancient India". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (4): 699. 
  58. ↑ Guimet, Musée (2016) (fr ۾). Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan. FeniXX réédition numérique. p. 355. ISBN 9782402052467. https://books.google.com/books?id=-HpYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA355. 
  59. ↑ "Such beads occur fairly largely on all the principal sites of the Harappan civilisation." in Pakistan Archaeology No.2. 1965. p. 21. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532513/page/n49/mode/2up. 
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