مواد ڏانھن هلو

انگولا

ڳنڍڻن کي سنواريو
کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
لوئانڊا ۾ انگولا جي نيشنل اسيمبلي جي بلڊنگ 2013 ۾ پورچوگيزي ڪمپني تيار ڪئي جنھن جي لاڳت 185 يو.ايس.ڊالر آھي.
ريپبلڪ آف انگولا

ريپبلڪا ڊي انگولا (پورچوگيزي)
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  • (سنڌي: "اتحاد سان حق وڌيڪ مضبوط ٿئي ٿو")
ترانو: Angola Avante
انگولا ڏانھن
فائل:AngolaAvante.ogg
مڪانيت  انگولا  (تيز نيرو) نقشو آفريڪي يونين  (ھلڪو نيرو)
مڪانيت  انگولا  (تيز نيرو)

نقشو آفريڪي يونين  (ھلڪو نيرو)

گادي جو هنڌ لوانڊا
8°50′S 13°20′E / 8.833°S 13.333°E / -8.833; 13.333
سڀ کان وڏو شهر لوئانڊا
دفتري ٻوليون پرتگالي
ٻيون سرڪاري ٻوليون
  • ڪيڪونگو
  • ڪمبوندو
  • امبوندو
نسلي گروھ (2000) 36% اومبوندو


25% امبوندو
13% بڪونگو
22% ۽ ٻيا آفريڪي
2% ميسٽيڪو
1% چيني

1% يورپي گورا
مقامي آبادي انگولن يا انگولائي
حڪومت يونيٽري، ڊاميننٽ پارٽي، صدارتي، آئيني ريپبلڪ
• صدر
 جئو لورئنسو گونڪلويز
• نائب صدر
 بورنيتو ڊي سوزا
مقننه نيشنل اسيمبلي
انگولا جو قيام
• پورچوگيزي بيٺڪيت
 1575
• پورچوگال کان آزادي جي جنگ
 11 November 1975
• گڏيل قومن ۾ رڪنيت
 22 November 1976
• موجوده آئين
 21 January 2010
پکيڙ
• جملي
 1٬246٬700 km2 (481٬400 sq mi) (22nd)
• پاڻي (%)
 negligible
آبادي
• 2014 مردم شماري
 25,789,024[1]
•  گھاٽائي
 20.69 /km2 (53.6 /sq mi) (199th)
جِي ڊي پي (مساوي قوت خريد ) 2017 لڳ ڀڳ
• ڪل
 $193.935 billion[2] (64th)
• في سيڪڙو
 $6,881[2] (107th)
جِي. ڊي. پي  (رڳو نالي ۾ ) 2017 لڳ ڀڳ
• ڪل
 $122.365 billion[2] (61st)

انگولا (Angola)، سرڪاري نالو "انگولا جي ريپبلڪ"، آفريڪا جي ڏاکڻي پاسي وارو ھڪ ملڪ آهي ۽ آفريڪا جو پکيڙ ۾ ستون وڏو ملڪ آهي. ان جون سرحدون ڏکڻ ۾ نميبيا، اتر ۾ ڊيموڪريٽڪ ريپبلڪ آف ڪانگو، اوڀر ۾ زمبيا ۽ اولھه ۾ ايٽلانٽڪ سمنڊ سان ملن ٿيون. ان جي ھڪ ايڪسڪليو علائقو پڻ آهي جنهن جون سرحدون ٻن ملڪن ڊيموڪريٽڪ ريپبلڪ آف ڪانگو ۽ ريپبلڪ آف ڪانگو سان ملن ٿيون. اھا ايڪسڪليو علائقو انگولا جو صوبو آهي جنھن جو نالو ڪابنڊا آهي. انگولا جي گادي جو هنڌ لوانڊا آھي جيڪو ملڪ جو سڀ کان وڏو شهر آهي.

انگولا قديم پٿر جي دور کان وٺي آباد آهي. بنتو ماڻهن جي توسيع علائقي تائين پهچڻ کان پوءِ، رياستون 13هين صدي عيسويءَ ۾ ٺهي ويون ۽ ڪنفيڊريشن ۾ منظم ڪيون ويون. ڪانگو جي بادشاهت 14هين صدي عيسويء کان ٻين بادشاهن جي وچ ۾ تسلط حاصل ڪرڻ لاء مٿي ڪيو. پورچوگالي ڳولا ڪندڙن سال 1483ع ۾ ڪانگو سان لاڳاپا قائم ڪيا. ڏکڻ ۾ ڊونگو (Ndongo) ۽ متامبا (Matamba) جون سلطنتون هيون، جن کان اڳتي ڏکڻ ۾ اوومبنڊو (Ovimbundu) سلطنتون ۽ اوڀر ۾ بنڊا (Mbunda) سلطنتون هيون. پرتگالي 16هين صدي عيسويء ۾ ساحل کي نوآبادي ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. ڪانگو پرتگالي خلاف ٽي جنگيون وڙهيون، جن جو خاتمو پرتگالين پاران ڊونگو جي فتح تي ٿيو. 19هين صديءَ ۾ غلامن جي واپار تي پابندي ڪانگو جي غير متنوع معاشي نظام کي سخت متاثر ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ يورپي آبادگارن آهستي آهستي علائقي جي اندرئين حصي ۾ پنهنجي موجودگي قائم ڪرڻ شروع ڪئي. پرتگالي ڪالوني جيڪا انگولا بڻجي وئي، 20هين صدي جي شروعات تائين پنهنجون موجوده سرحدون حاصل نه ڪري سگهي ۽ مقامي گروهن؛ ڪوانياما، ڪواماتو ۽ بنڊا (Mbunda) جي سخت مزاحمت جو تجربو ڪيو.

هڪ ڊگھي نوآبادياتي مخالف جدوجهد (1961ع کان 1974ع تائين) کان پوءِ، انگولا سال 1975ع ۾ هڪ پارٽيءَ واري جمهوريه جي حيثيت سان آزادي حاصل ڪئي، پر ملڪ ساڳئي سال، حڪمران پيپلز موومينٽ فار دي لبريشن آف انگولا (MPLA)، جن کي سوويت يونين ۽ ڪيوبا جي پٺڀرائي حاصل هئي ۽ باغي نيشنل يونين فار دي ٽوٽل انڊيپينڊنس آف انگولا، اصل ۾ هڪ مائوسٽ ۽ بعد ۾ ڪميونسٽ مخالف گروپ جنهن کي آمريڪا ۽ ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي حمايت حاصل هئي، جي وچ ۾ هڪ تباهي واري گهرو ويڙهه ۾ اچي ويو. ويڙهاڪ تنظيم نيشنل لبريشن فرنٽ آف انگولا، جي "زائري" طرفان حمايت ڪئي وئي ۽ فرنٽ فار لبريشن آف دي اينڪليو آف ڪابنڊا، جيڪو ڪابنڊا ايڪسليو جي آزاديءَ جي طلب ڪري ٿو، کي پڻ زائري جي حمايت حاصل آهي.

سال 2002ع ۾ گهرو ويڙهه جي خاتمي کان وٺي، انگولا هڪ نسبتا مستحڪم آئيني جمهوريه جي حيثيت سان اڀري آيو آهي ۽ ان جي معيشت دنيا جي تيز ترين ترقي ڪندڙ ملڪن مان آهي. چين، يورپي يونين ۽ آمريڪا پاران ملڪ ۾ واپاري ڀائيوار ۽ سڀ کان وڏي سيڙپڪاري آهي. تنهن هوندي به، معاشي ترقي انتهائي اڻ برابري آهي، ملڪ جي دولت جو گهڻو حصو آباديءَ جي غير متناسب ننڍڙي حصي ۾ مرڪوز آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته اڪثر انگولن جي زندگي جو معيار گهٽ آهي؛ زندگي جي اميد دنيا ۾ سڀ کان گهٽ آهي، جڏهن ته ٻارن جي موت جي شرح سڀ کان وڌيڪ آهي.

انگولا گڏيل قومن، آفريڪي يونين، پرتگالي ڳالھائيندڙ ملڪن جي ڪميونٽي ۽ ڏاکڻي آفريڪي ڊولپمينٽ ڪميونٽي جو ميمبر آهي. سال 2023ع تائين، انگولا جي آبادي اندازي مطابق ٽي ڪروڙ بهتر لک (37.2 ملين) آهي. انگولن ڪلچر صدين کان پرتگالي اثر يعني پرتگالي ٻولي ۽ ڪيٿولڪ چرچ جي غلبي سان گڏ مختلف قسم جي مقامي رسمن ۽ روايتن سان ملندڙ جلندڙ ثقافت جي عڪاسي ڪري ٿو.

نالو

[سنواريو]

انگولا نالو پرتگالي نوآبادياتي نالي, "رينو ڊي آنگولا" (Reino de Angola: انگولا جي سلطنت) مان نڪتل آهي، جيڪو پولو ڊياس ڊي نووايس جي 1571 جي چارٽر جي شروعات ۾ ظاهر ٿيو. مٿيون نالو پرتگالي طرفان نڪتل لقب اينگولا (Ngola) مان ورتو ويو، جيڪو ڊونگو (Ndongo) ۽ متامبا جي بادشاهن وٽ رکيو ويو. ڪوانزا ۽ لوڪالا ندين جي وچ ۾، بلندين ۾ ڊونگو ، نامياري طور تي ڪانگو جي بادشاهي جو قبضو هو. پر 16 صدي عيسويء ۾ اهو وڌيڪ آزاديء جي طلب ڪري رهيو هو.

تاريخ

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو انگولا جي تاريخ

ابتدائي لڏپلاڻ ۽ سياسي يونٽ

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو ڪانگو جي سلطنت
بادشاهه جوائو پهريون، ڪانگو جي بادشاهت جو مانيڪونگو

جديد انگولا جي آبادي وڏي تعداد ۾ خانه بدوش خوئي ۽ سان ماڻهن جي پهرين بنتو لڏپلاڻ کان اڳ هئي. خوئي ۽ سان جا ماڻهو چراگاهن يا فصل پوکڻ جي بجاءِ شڪار گڏ ڪندڙ هئا.[5] پهرين صدي قبل مسيح ۾، اهي اتر کان اچڻ وارن بنتو ماڻهن، جن مان اڪثر ڪري اڄڪلهه جي اتر اولهه نائجيريا ۽ ڏکڻ نائيجر جا اصل هئا، طرفان بي گهر ٿيا.[6] بنتو ڳالهائيندڙن، انگولا جي مرڪزي هاءِلينڊز ۽ لوانڊا جي ميدانن ۾ ڪيلي ۽ تارو جي پوک ۽ گڏوگڏ وڏن ڍورن جي سنڀال کي متعارف ڪرايو. انگولا جي سڄي علائقي ۾ ڪيترن ئي جاگرافيائي روڪٿام عنصرن جي ڪري، يعني سختيءَ سان گذرڻ لائق زمين، گرم ۽ مرطوب آبهوا ۽ موتمار بيمارين جي گھڻائي جي ڪارڻ انگولا ۾ اڳ-نوآبادياتي قبيلن جو پاڻ ۾ ميلاپ ناياب هو.

مهاجرن جي آباد ٿيڻ کان پوءِ ڪيئي سياسي ادارا پيدا ٿيا. انهن مان سڀ کان وڌيڪ مشهور، انگولا ۾ ٻڌل، ڪانگو جي بادشاهت هئي. اها اتر طرف، جيڪا هاڻي جمهوري جمهوريه ڪانگو، جمهوريه ڪانگو ۽ گيبون آهن، وڌائي وئي. هن ڏکڻ-اولهه ۽ اولهندي آفريڪا جي سامونڊي ڪناري تي ٻين شهري-رياستن ۽ تهذيبن سان واپاري رستا قائم ڪيا. ان جا واپاري جيتوڻيڪ عظيم زمبابوي ۽ متاپا سلطنت تائين پهچي ويا، جيتوڻيڪ بادشاهي ٿوري يا نه سمندر ذريعي واپار ۾ مصروف هئي.[7] ان جي ڏکڻ ۾ ڊونگو جي بادشاهت هئي، جن ڪري بعد ۾ پرتگالي ڪالوني جو علائقو ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڊونگو جي نالي سان سڃاتو ويندو هو. ان جي اڳيان متمبا جي سلطنت هئي.[8] اتر ۾ ڪڪونگو جي ننڍي بادشاهت بعد ۾ ڪانگو بادشاهي جي هڪ باجگذار هئي. انهن سڀني رياستن جا ماڻهو عام ٻولي طور ڪڪنگو ڳالهائيندا هئا.

پرتگالي نوآبادي

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو انگولا جي نوآبادياتي تاريخ ۽ پرتگالي انگولا
پرتگال جي بادشاهه مينوئل فرسٽ پاران ڪانگو جي بادشاهه افونسو فرسٽ کي عطا ڪيل ڪوٽ آف آرمز

پورچوگالي ڳولا ڪندڙ ڊيوگو ڪاو 1484ع ۾ هن علائقي ۾ پهتو.[9] گذريل سال پورچوگالين ڪانگو جي سلطنت سان لاڳاپا قائم ڪيا هئا، جيڪي ان وقت اتر ۾ جديد گبون کان ڏکڻ ۾ ڪوانزا نديءَ تائين پکڙيل هئا. پورچوگالين پنھنجي ابتدائي واپاري پوسٽ سويو ۾ قائم ڪئي، جيڪو ھاڻي انگولا ۾ ڪئبنڊا ايڪسليو کان سواءِ اتر ۾ سڀ کان وڏو شھر آھي. پاولو ڊياس ڊي نوويس سال 1575ع ۾ ساؤ پاولو ڊي لوانڊا ٺهرايو، جنهن ۾ آبادگارن جي هڪ سئو خاندانن ۽ چار سئو سپاهين سان گڏ هو. بينگوئلا 1587ع ۾ مضبوط ٿيو ۽ 1617ع ۾ هڪ ٽائون شپ بڻجي ويو. هڪ آمرانه رياست، ڪانگو جي بادشاهي پنهنجي بادشاهي جي چوڌاري انتهائي مرڪزيت رکندڙ هئي ۽ پاڙيسري رياستن کي ويسلن جي طور تي ڪنٽرول ڪيو. ان جي مضبوط معيشت هئي، جنهن جو بنياد ٽامي، هٿي دانت، لوڻ، لڪ ۽ ٿوري حد تائين غلامن جي صنعتن تي ٻڌل هو. [10] غلاميءَ جي جاگيردارانه نظام مان پرتگال سان سرمائيداريءَ ۾ منتقلي ڪانگو جي بادشاهت جي تاريخ لاءِ اهم ثابت ٿيندي. [11]

جيئن ڪانگو ۽ پورچوگال جا لاڳاپا 16 صدي جي شروعات ۾ وڌيا، تيئن بادشاهن جي وچ ۾ واپار به وڌيو. گهڻو ڪري واپار کجيءَ جي ڪپڙي، ٽامي ۽ هٿي دانت ۾ ٿيندو هو، پر غلامن جو تعداد پڻ وڌي رهيو هو.[12] ڪانگو ڪجھ غلام برآمد ڪيا، ۽ ان جي غلامن جي منڊي اندروني رھي. پر، ساؤ ٽومي جي پرتگالي آباديءَ کان پوءِ هڪ ڪامياب کنڊ پوکڻ واري ڪالوني جي ترقيءَ کانپوءِ، ڪانگو ٻيٽ جي واپارين ۽ پوکيءَ لاءِ غلامن جو وڏو ذريعو بڻجي ويو. بادشاهه افونسو طرفان خط و ڪتابت ملڪ جي اندر غلامن جي خريداري ۽ وڪري بابت دستاويز ڪري ٿي. هن جي اڪائونٽن ۾ پڻ تفصيل آهي ته جنگ ۾ قبضو ڪيل غلامن کي پرتگالي واپارين کي ڏنو ويو يا وڪرو ڪيو ويو.[13]

Afonso continued to expand the kingdom of Kongo into the 1540s, expanding its borders to the south and east. The expansion of Kongo's population, coupled with Afonso's earlier religious reforms, allowed the ruler to centralize power in his capital and increase the power of the monarchy. He also established a royal monopoly on some trade.[14][15] To govern the growing slave trade, Afonso and several Portuguese kings claimed a joint monopoly on the external slave trade.[14][15]

The slave trade increasingly became Kongo's primary, and arguably sole, economic sector. A major obstacle for the Kingdom of Kongo was that slaves were the only commodity for which the European powers were willing to trade. Kongo lacked an effective international currency. Kongolese nobles could buy slaves with the national currency of nzimbu shells, which could be traded for slaves. These could be sold to gain international currency.

As the slave trade was the only commodity in which Europeans were interested in the region during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Kongo economy was unable to diversify or later industrialise outside of sectors in which slavery was involved, such as the arms industry.[16][17] The increased production and sale of guns within the kingdom was due to the salient issue of the slave trade, which had become an increasingly violent struggle. There was a constant need for slaves for the kings and queens to sell in exchange for foreign commodities, the absence of which would prevent them from having any influence with European powers such as Portugal and eventually the Dutch Republic.

Kongolese kings needed this influence to garner support from European powers for quelling internal rebellions. The situation became increasingly complicated during the rule of Garcia II, who needed the assistance of the Dutch military to drive out the Portuguese from Luanda, in spite of the fact that Portugal was Kongo's primary slave trading partner.[16]

By the early 17th century, the supply of foreign slaves captured by the Kongolese externally was waning. The government began to approve the enslavement of freeborn Kongolese citizens for relatively minor infractions, nearly any disobeying of the authoritarian system and the aristocracy. If several villagers were deemed guilty of a crime, it became relatively common for the whole village to be enslaved. The resulting chaos and internal conflict from Garcia II's reign would lead into that of his son and successor, António I. He was killed in 1665 by Portuguese at the Battle of Mbwila 1665, together with a substantial proportion of the aristocracy. The colonists were expanding their power.[18]

War broke out more widely in the Kingdom of Kongo after the death of António I.[17] Much of the stability and access to iron ore and charcoal necessary for gunsmiths to maintain the arms industry was disrupted. From then on, in this period almost every Kongolese citizen was in danger of being enslaved.[19][16] Many Kongolese subjects were adroit in making guns, and they were enslaved to have their skills available to colonists in the New World, where they worked as blacksmiths, ironworkers, and charcoal makers.[17]

The Portuguese established several other settlements, forts and trading posts along the Angolan coast, principally trading in Angolan slaves for plantations. Local slave dealers provided a large number of slaves for the Portuguese Empire,[20] usually in exchange for manufactured goods from Europe.[21][22] This part of the Atlantic slave trade continued until after Brazil's independence in the 1820s.[23]

Queen Ana de Sousa of Ndongo meeting with the Portuguese, 1657
Depiction of Luanda from 1755

Despite Portugal's territorial claims in Angola, its control over much of the country's vast interior was minimal.[24] In the 16th century Portugal gained control of the coast through a series of treaties and wars. Life for European colonists was difficult and progress was slow. John Iliffe notes that "Portuguese records of Angola from the 16th century show that a great famine occurred on average every seventy years; accompanied by epidemic disease, it might kill one-third or one-half of the population, destroying the demographic growth of a generation and forcing colonists back into the river valleys".[25]

During the Portuguese Restoration War, the Dutch West India Company occupied the principal settlement of Luanda in 1641, using alliances with local peoples to carry out attacks against Portuguese holdings elsewhere.[23] A fleet under Salvador de Sá retook Luanda in 1648; reconquest of the rest of the territory was completed by 1650. New treaties with the Kongo were signed in 1649; others with Njinga's Kingdom of Matamba and Ndongo followed in 1656. The conquest of Pungo Andongo in 1671 was the last major Portuguese expansion from Luanda, as attempts to invade Kongo in 1670 and Matamba in 1681 failed. Colonial outposts also expanded inward from Benguela, but until the late 19th century the inroads from Luanda and Benguela were very limited.[24] Hamstrung by a series of political upheavals in the early 1800s, Portugal was slow to mount a large scale annexation of Angolan territory.[23]

History of Angola; written in Luanda in 1680.

The slave trade was abolished in Angola in 1836, and in 1854 the colonial government freed all its existing slaves.[23] Four years later, a more progressive administration appointed by Portugal abolished slavery altogether. However, these decrees remained largely unenforceable, and the Portuguese depended on assistance from the British Royal Navy and what became known as the Blockade of Africa to enforce their ban on the slave trade.[23] This coincided with a series of renewed military expeditions into the bush.

By the mid-nineteenth century Portugal had established its dominion as far north as the Congo River and as far south as Mossâmedes.[23] Until the late 1880s, Portugal entertained proposals to link Angola with its colony in Mozambique but was blocked by British and Belgian opposition.[26] In this period, the Portuguese came up against different forms of armed resistance from various peoples in Angola.[27]

The Berlin Conference in 1884–1885 set the colony's borders, delineating the boundaries of Portuguese claims in Angola,[26] although many details were unresolved until the 1920s.[28] Trade between Portugal and its African territories rapidly increased as a result of protective tariffs, leading to increased development, and a wave of new Portuguese immigrants.[26]

Between 1939 and 1943, Portuguese army operations against the Mucubal, who they accused of rebellion and cattle-thieving, resulted in hundreds of Mucubal killed. During the campaign, 3,529 were taken prisoner, 20% of whom were women and children, and imprisoned in concentration camps. Many died in captivity from undernourishment, violence and forced labor. Around 600 were sent to Sao Tome and Principe. Hundreds were also sent to a camp in Damba, where 26% died.[29]

Angolan War of Independence

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو Angolan War of Independence ۽ Portuguese Colonial War
Portuguese Armed Forces marching in Luanda during the Portuguese Colonial Wars (1961–74).

Under colonial law, black Angolans were forbidden from forming political parties or labour unions.[30] The first nationalist movements did not take root until after World War II, spearheaded by a largely Westernised and Portuguese-speaking urban class, which included many mestiços.[31] During the early 1960s they were joined by other associations stemming from ad hoc labour activism in the rural workforce.[30] Portugal's refusal to address increasing Angolan demands for self-determination provoked an armed conflict, which erupted in 1961 with the Baixa de Cassanje revolt and gradually evolved into a protracted war of independence that persisted for the next twelve years.[32] Throughout the conflict, three militant nationalist movements with their own partisan guerrilla wings emerged from the fighting between the Portuguese government and local forces, supported to varying degrees by the Portuguese Communist Party.[31][33]

The National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA) recruited from Bakongo refugees in Zaire.[34] Benefiting from particularly favourable political circumstances in Léopoldville, and especially from a common border with Zaire, Angolan political exiles were able to build up a power base among a large expatriate community from related families, clans, and traditions.[35] People on both sides of the border spoke mutually intelligible dialects and enjoyed shared ties to the historical Kingdom of Kongo.[35] Though as foreigners skilled Angolans could not take advantage of Mobutu Sese Seko's state employment programme, some found work as middlemen for the absentee owners of various lucrative private ventures. The migrants eventually formed the FNLA with the intention of making a bid for political power upon their envisaged return to Angola.[35]

Members of the National Liberation Front of Angola training in 1973.

A largely Ovimbundu guerrilla initiative against the Portuguese in central Angola from 1966 was spearheaded by Jonas Savimbi and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA).[34] It remained handicapped by its geographic remoteness from friendly borders, the ethnic fragmentation of the Ovimbundu, and the isolation of peasants on European plantations where they had little opportunity to mobilise.[35]

During the late 1950s, the rise of the Marxist–Leninist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) in the east and Dembos hills north of Luanda came to hold special significance. Formed as a coalition resistance movement by the Angolan Communist Party,[32] the organisation's leadership remained predominantly Ambundu and courted public sector workers in Luanda.[34] Although both the MPLA and its rivals accepted material assistance from the Soviet Union or the People's Republic of China, the former harboured strong anti-imperialist views and was openly critical of the United States and its support for Portugal.[33] This allowed it to win important ground on the diplomatic front, soliciting support from nonaligned governments in Morocco, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, and the United Arab Republic.[32]

The MPLA attempted to move its headquarters from Conakry to Léopoldville in October 1961, renewing efforts to create a common front with the FNLA, then known as the Union of Angolan Peoples (UPA) and its leader Holden Roberto. Roberto turned down the offer.[32] When the MPLA first attempted to insert its own insurgents into Angola, the cadres were ambushed and annihilated by UPA partisans on Roberto's orders—setting a precedent for the bitter factional strife which would later ignite the Angolan Civil War.[32]

Angolan Civil War

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Angolan Civil War
Agostinho Neto, first President of Angola.

انگولا صدين کان پورچوگال جي ڪالوني يا بيٺڪ رھيو آھي. ان قبضي دوران مقامي قبيلن جون پورچوگيزي حاڪمن سان لڙايون ھلنديون آيون. ڊگھي عرصي تائين ھلندڙ آزاديءَ جي جنگ ذريعي ھڪ مارڪسٽ ۽ ليننسٽ پارٽي موومينٽ آف پيپلز فار لبريشن آف انگولا ڊاڪٽر اگستينو نيتو جي سربراهي ۾ 1975 ۾ آزادي ماڻي جنھن ملڪ ۾ سوويت يونين۽ ڪيوبا جي مدد سان ھڪ پارٽيءَ واري جي حاڪميت واري سوشلسٽ رياست قائم ڪئي جنھن کان پوءِ ملڪ ۾ خانہ جنگي شروع ٿي وئي ھڪ اينٽي ڪميونسٽ پارٽيءَ جنھن جو نالو پارٽي نيشنل يونين فار ٽوٽل انڊپينڊنس آف انگولا، مختصر نالو يونيتا سوشلسٽ حڪومت سان ڪميونزم جي خاتمي لاءِ مزاحمت ڪئي. ان باغي پارٽي جي مدد يونائيٽيڊ اسٽيٽس ۽ ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي نسلي حڪومت ڪري رهيا هئا. اھا لڙائي 2002 ۾ ختم ٿي جڏهن ھڪ يونيٽري صدارتي ريپبلڪ قائم ٿي.

Throughout the war of independence, the three rival nationalist movements were severely hampered by political and military factionalism, as well as their inability to unite guerrilla efforts against the Portuguese.[36] Between 1961 and 1975 the MPLA, UNITA, and the FNLA competed for influence in the Angolan population and the international community.[36] The Soviet Union and Cuba became especially sympathetic towards the MPLA and supplied that party with arms, ammunition, funding, and training.[36] They also backed UNITA militants until it became clear that the latter was at irreconcilable odds with the MPLA.[37]

The collapse of Portugal's Estado Novo government following the 1974 Carnation Revolution suspended all Portuguese military activity in Africa and the brokering of a ceasefire pending negotiations for Angolan independence.[36] Encouraged by the Organisation of African Unity, Holden Roberto, Jonas Savimbi, and MPLA chairman Agostinho Neto met in Mombasa in early January 1975 and agreed to form a coalition government.[38] This was ratified by the Alvor Agreement later that month, which called for general elections and set the country's independence date for 11 November 1975.[38] All three factions, however, followed up on the ceasefire by taking advantage of the gradual Portuguese withdrawal to seize various strategic positions, acquire more arms, and enlarge their militant forces.[38] The rapid influx of weapons from numerous external sources, especially the Soviet Union and the United States, as well as the escalation of tensions between the nationalist parties, fueled a new outbreak of hostilities.[38] With tacit American and Zairean support the FNLA began massing large numbers of troops in northern Angola in an attempt to gain military superiority.[36] Meanwhile, the MPLA began securing control of Luanda, a traditional Ambundu stronghold.[36] Sporadic violence broke out in Luanda over the next few months after the FNLA attacked the MPLA's political headquarters in March 1975.[38][39] The fighting intensified with street clashes in April and May, and UNITA became involved after over two hundred of its members were massacred by an MPLA contingent that June.[38] An upswing in Soviet arms shipments to the MPLA influenced a decision by the Central Intelligence Agency to likewise provide substantial covert aid to the FNLA and UNITA.[40]

In August 1975, the MPLA requested direct assistance from the Soviet Union in the form of ground troops.[40] The Soviets declined, offering to send advisers but no troops; however, Cuba was more forthcoming and in late September dispatched nearly five hundred combat personnel to Angola, along with sophisticated weaponry and supplies.[37] By independence, there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers in the country.[40] They were kept supplied by a massive airbridge carried out with Soviet aircraft.[40] The persistent buildup of Cuban and Soviet military aid allowed the MPLA to drive its opponents from Luanda and blunt an abortive intervention by Zairean and South African troops, which had deployed in a belated attempt to assist the FNLA and UNITA.[38] The FNLA was largely annihilated after the decisive Battle of Quifangondo, although UNITA managed to withdraw its civil officials and militia from Luanda and seek sanctuary in the southern provinces.[36] From there, Savimbi continued to mount a determined insurgent campaign against the MPLA.[40]

Soviet made Cuban PT-76 tank in Luanda during the Cuban intervention in Angola, 1976

Between 1975 and 1991, the MPLA implemented an economic and political system based on the principles of scientific socialism, incorporating central planning and a Marxist–Leninist one-party state.[41] It embarked on an ambitious programme of nationalisation, and the domestic private sector was essentially abolished.[41] Privately owned enterprises were nationalised and incorporated into a single umbrella of state-owned enterprises known as Unidades Economicas Estatais (UEE).[41] Under the MPLA, Angola experienced a significant degree of modern industrialisation.[41] However, corruption and graft also increased and public resources were either allocated inefficiently or simply embezzled by officials for personal enrichment.[42] The ruling party survived an attempted coup d'état by the Maoist-oriented Communist Organisation of Angola (OCA) in 1977, which was suppressed after a series of bloody political purges left thousands of OCA supporters dead.[43]

The MPLA abandoned its former Marxist ideology at its third party congress in 1990, and declared social democracy to be its new platform.[43] Angola subsequently became a member of the International Monetary Fund; restrictions on the market economy were also reduced in an attempt to draw foreign investment.[44] By May 1991 it reached a peace agreement with UNITA, the Bicesse Accords, which scheduled new general elections for September 1992.[44] When the MPLA secured a major electoral victory, UNITA objected to the results of both the presidential and legislative vote count and returned to war.[44] Following the election, the Halloween massacre occurred from 30 October to 1 November, where MPLA forces killed thousands of UNITA supporters.[45]

21هين صدي ۾

[سنواريو]
لوانڊا 21هين صديءَ ۾ وڏي پئماني تي، گهڻو ڪري تيل ۽ هيرن جي صنعتن مان منافعي جي ذريعي شهري تجديد ۽ بحاليءَ جو تجربو ڪري رهيو آهي.
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو انگولا، 21هين صدي ۾

22 فيبروري، 2002ع تي، سرڪاري فوجون، 22 ساومبين کي صوبي، موڪسيڪو ۾ ھڪڙي جھڙپ ۾ ماريو.[46] يونيتا ۽ ايم پي ايل اي اپريل ۾ "لوئينا مفاهمت جي ياداشت" تي رضامندي ڏنيو؛ يونيتا (UNITA) پنهنجي هٿياربند ونگ کي ڇڏي ڏيڻ تي اتفاق ڪيو.[47] 2008ع ۽ 2012ع جي چونڊن سان، يونيتا ۽ ايف اين ايل اي (FNLA) اپوزيشن پارٽين سان گڏ، هڪ ايم پي ايل اي-حڪومتي-پارٽي نظام ظاهر ٿيو.[48]

انگولا ۾ هڪ ڊگھي جنگ جي نتيجي ۾، بارودي سرنگن جي ڪثرت ۽ ڪابنڊا جي آزاديءَ جي حق ۾ جاري سياسي تحريڪ (FLEC پاران ڪابنڊا جي ڊگھي تڪرار جي تناظر ۾)، هڪ سنگين انساني بحران آهي. جڏهن ته اندروني طور تي بي گهر ٿيل گهڻا هاڻي راڄڌاني جي چوڌاري ڪچي آبادين م وسندا آهن ۽ عام انگولا جي واسين لاء صورتحال مايوس ڪن اهي.[49][50]

سال 2016ع ۾ ڏڪار ڏاکڻي آفريڪا ۾ 25 سالن ۾ بدترين خوراڪ جي بحران جو سبب بڻيو ۽ انگولا جي اٺن صوبن مان 14 لک ماڻهن کي متاثر ڪيو. خوراڪ جي قيمتن ۾ اضافو ٿيو ۽ غذائي کوٽ جي شديد شرح ٻيڻي ٿي وئي ۽ 95,000 کان وڌيڪ ٻار متاثر ٿيا.[51]

صدر جوز ايڊوارڊو ڊوس سانتوس سال 2017ع ۾ 38 سالن کان پوءِ انگولا جي صدر جي حيثيت سان استعيفيٰ ڏئي ڇڏي، پرامن طور تي سانتوس جو چونڊيل، جوآو لورينڪو جانشين بڻيو. [52] ڊوس سانتوس خاندان جا ڪجهه ميمبر بعد ۾ اعلي پيماني تي ڪرپشن سان ڳنڍيل مليا. جولاءِ، 2022ع ۾، اڳوڻو صدر جوس ايڊورڊو ڊوس سانتوس اسپين ۾ فوت ٿي ويو.[53]

آگسٽ، 2022ع ۾، حڪمران پارٽي، ايم پي ايل اي، هڪ ٻي چونڊ ۾ اڪثريت حاصل ڪئي ۽ صدر لورينڪو چونڊن ۾ پنجن سالن جي هڪ ٻي مدت حاصل ڪئي. بهرحال، هي چونڊ انگولا جي تاريخ ۾ سخت ترين هئي.[54]

اگستينو نيتو، انگولا جو پھريون صدر، 1978 ۾ لوئانڊا ۾ پولينڊ جي سفير سان ملندي

جاگرافي

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Geography of Angola
Topography of Angola

At 1٬246٬700 km2 (481٬400 sq mi),[55] Angola is the world's twenty-second largest country – comparable in size to Mali, or twice the size of France or of Texas. It lies mostly between latitudes 4° and 18°S, and longitudes 12° and 24°E.

Angola borders Namibia to the south, Zambia to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north-east and the South Atlantic Ocean to the west.

The coastal exclave of Cabinda in the north has borders with the Republic of the Congo to the north and with the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south.[56] Angola has a favorable coastline for maritime trade, with four natural harbors: Luanda, Lobito, Moçâmedes, and Porto Alexandre. These natural indentations contrast with Africa's typical coastline of rocky cliffs and deep bays.[57] Angola's capital, Luanda, lies on the Atlantic coast in the northwest of the country.[58]

Angola had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.35/10, ranking it 23rd globally out of 172 countries.[59] In Angola forest cover is around 53% of the total land area, equivalent to 66,607,380 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 79,262,780 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 65,800,190 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 807,200 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 40% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 3% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership. [60] [61]

Satellite imagery of Angola, 2022

Climate

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Climate of Angola
Angola map of Köppen climate classification.

Like the rest of tropical Africa, Angola experiences distinct, alternating rainy and dry seasons.[62] In the north, the rainy season may last for as long as seven months—usually from September to April, with perhaps a brief slackening in January or February.[62] In the south, the rainy season begins later, in November, and lasts until about February.[62] The dry season (cacimbo) is often characterized by a heavy morning mist.[62] In general, precipitation is higher in the north, but at any latitude it is greater in the interior than along the coast and increases with altitude.[62] Temperatures fall with distance from the equator and with altitude and tend to rise closer to the Atlantic Ocean.[62] Thus, at Soyo, at the mouth of the Congo River, the average annual temperature is about 26 °C, but it is under 16 °C at Huambo on the temperate central plateau.[62] The coolest months are July and August (in the middle of the dry season), when frost may sometimes form at higher altitudes.[62]

Due to climate change, Angola's annual average temperature has increased by 1.4.°C since 1951, and is expected to keep rising[63] while rainfall is becoming more variable.[64] Angola is highly vulnerable to climate change impacts.[65] Natural hazards such as floods, erosion, droughts, and epidemics (e.g.: malaria, cholera and typhoid fever) are expected to worsen with climate change. Rising sea levels also pose a significant risk to Angola's coastal areas, where around 50% of the population lives.[66]

In 2023 Angola emitted 174.71 million tonnes of greenhouse gases, around 0.32% of the world's total emissions, making it the 46th highest emitting country.[67] In its Nationally Determined Contribution, Angola has pledged a 14% reduction in its greenhouse gas emissions by 2025 and an additional 10% reduction conditional on international support.[68] According to the World Bank, achieving climate resilience in Angola requires diversifying the country's economy away from its dependence on oil.[63]

Wildlife

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Wildlife of Angola

حڪومت ۽ سياست

[سنواريو]

معيشت

[سنواريو]

ڊيموگرافڪ

[سنواريو]

ثقافت

[سنواريو]

گيلري

[سنواريو]
A booming economy due to oil revenues and stable politics, Angola has seen an increase in its international trading sector.
Luanda city centre.
The Banco Nacional de Angola building on the Marginal in Luanda dates from 1956.
TAAG Angolan Airlines is Angola's national airline.
New suburb (new housing area) in Luanda built in 2010.
Offshore petrol platform prepared for moving to final destination on high sea, Luanda, Angola, Atlantic Ocean

حوالا

[سنواريو]
  1. ↑ 2014 population census (INE Angola) آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 6 May 2016 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 "Angola". International Monetary Fund. 
  3. ↑ [https://web.archive.org/web/ 20150209003326/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI "Gini Index"] Check |archiveurl= value (مدد). World Bank. وقت 9 February 2015 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 2 March 2011.  line feed character in |archiveurl= at position 29 (مدد)
  4. ↑ "2016 Human Development Report" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. حاصل ڪيل 21 March 2017. 
  5. ↑ Henderson, Lawrence (1979). Angola: Five Centuries of Conflict. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. pp. 40–42. ISBN 978-0812216202. 
  6. ↑ Miller, Joseph (1979). Kings and Kinsmen: Early Mbundu States in Angola. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. pp. 55–56. ISBN 978-0198227045. 
  7. ↑ "The Story of Africa". BBC. وقت 24 May 2010 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 27 June 2010.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  8. ↑ سانچو:Cite EB9
  9. ↑ سانچو:Cite EB9
  10. ↑ "The Rise and Fall of the Ancient Kongo Kingdom". Africa Rebirth. وقت 31 March 2024 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 31 March 2024.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  11. ↑ Heywood, Linda M. "Slavery and Its Transformation in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800." The Journal of African History 50, no. 1 (2009): 1–22. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40206695.
  12. ↑ Heywood, Linda M. "Slavery and Its Transformation in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800." The Journal of African History 50, no. 1 (2009): 1–22. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40206695.
  13. ↑ Atmore, Anthony and Oliver (2001). Medieval Africa, 1250–1800. p. 171. https://archive.org/details/medievalafrica1200rola. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Atmore, Anthony and Oliver (2001). Medieval Africa, 1250–1800. p. 171. https://archive.org/details/medievalafrica1200rola. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Heywood, Linda M. "Slavery and Its Transformation in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491–1800." The Journal of African History 50, no. 1 (2009): 1–22. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40206695.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 "Kingdom of Kongo 1390–1914". South African History Online. وقت 23 February 2019 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 31 March 2024.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Rinquist, John: Kongo Iron: Symbolic Power, Superior Technology and Slave Wisdom, African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter, Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2008, Article 3, pp.14–15
  18. ↑ Thornton, John K: Warfare in Atlantic Africa 1500–1800, 1999. Routledge. Page 103.
  19. ↑ Thornton, John K: The Kongolese Saint Anthonty: Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita and the Antonian Movement, 1684–1706, page 69. Cambridge University, 1998
  20. ↑ Fleisch, Axel. "Angola: Slave Trade, Abolition of". ۾ Shillington, Kevin. Encyclopedia of African History. Routledge. صفحا. 131–133. ISBN 1-57958-245-1. 
  21. ↑ Angola President Jose Eduardo Dos Santos Handbook. Int'l Business Publications USA. 1 January 2006. p. 153. ISBN 0739716069. 
  22. ↑ "The History of Brazil–Africa Relations". Bridging the Atlantic. p. 27. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/AFRICAEXT/Resources/africa-brazil-bridging-chapter2.pdf. Retrieved 14 May 2016. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 Collelo, Thomas, ed (1991). Angola, a Country Study. Area Handbook Series (Third ed.). Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army, American University. pp. 14–26. ISBN 978-0160308444. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 سانچو:Cite EB9
  25. ↑ Iliffe, John (2007) Africans: the history of a continent آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 10 June 2016 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين.. Cambridge University Press. p. 68. ISBN 0-521-68297-5. For valuable complements for the 16th and 17th centuries see Beatrix Heintze, Studien zur Geschichte Angolas im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert, Colónia/Alemanha: Köppe, 1996
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Corrado, Jacopo (2008). The Creole Elite and the Rise of Angolan Protonationalism: 1870–1920. Amherst, New York: Cambria Press. pp. 11–13. ISBN 978-1604975291. 
  27. ↑ See René Pélissier, Les guerres grises: Résistance et revoltes en Angola, (1845-1941), Éditions Pélissier, Montamets, 78630 Orgeval (France), 1977
  28. ↑ See René Pélissier, La colonie du Minotaure. Nationalismes et révoltes en Angola (1926–1961), éditions Pélissier, Montamets, 78630 Orgeval (France), 1979
  29. ↑ Coca de Campos , Rafael (2022). "Kakombola: O genocídio dos Mucubais na Angola Colonial, 1930 – 1943" (pt ۾). Atena Editora. doi:10.22533/at.ed.663221201. ISBN 978-65-5983-766-3. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Okoth, Assa (2006). A History of Africa: African nationalism and the de-colonisation process. Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers. pp. 143–147. ISBN 9966-25-358-0. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Dowden, Richard (2010). Africa: Altered States, Ordinary Miracles. London: Portobello Books. pp. 207–208. ISBN 978-1-58648-753-9. https://archive.org/details/africaalteredsta00rich/page/207. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 Cornwell, Richard. "The War of Independence" (PDF). Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. وقت 21 February 2015 تي اصل (PDF) کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 20 February 2015.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Stockwell, John (1979). In Search of Enemies. London: Futura Publications Limited. pp. 44–45. ISBN 978-0393009262. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Hanlon, Joseph (1986). Beggar Your Neighbours: Apartheid Power in Southern Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-0253331311. https://archive.org/details/beggaryourneighb00hanl. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 Chabal, Patrick (2002). A History of Postcolonial Lusophone Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 142. ISBN 978-0253215659. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 36.5 36.6 Rothschild, Donald (1997). Managing Ethnic Conflict in Africa: Pressures and Incentives for Cooperation. Washington: The Brookings Institution. pp. 115–120. ISBN 978-0815775935. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Domínguez, Jorge (1989). To Make a World Safe for Revolution: Cuba's Foreign Policy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 131–133. ISBN 978-0674893252. 
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 38.4 38.5 38.6 Weigert, Stephen (2011). Angola: A Modern Military History. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. pp. 56–65. ISBN 978-0230117778. 
  39. ↑ Spikes, Daniel (1993). Angola and the Politics of Intervention: From Local Bush War to Chronic Crisis in Southern Africa. Jefferson: McFarland & Company. pp. 143–144. ISBN 978-0899508887. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 40.3 40.4 Vanneman, Peter (1990). Soviet Strategy in Southern Africa: Gorbachev's Pragmatic Approach. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-0817989026. https://archive.org/details/sovietstrategyin00vann. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 Ferreira, Manuel (2002). Brauer, Jurgen; Dunne, J. Paul. eds. Arming the South: The Economics of Military Expenditure, Arms Production and Arms Trade in Developing Countries. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. pp. 251–255. ISBN 978-0-230-50125-6. 
  42. ↑ Akongdit, Addis Ababa Othow (2013). Impact of Political Stability on Economic Development: Case of South Sudan. Bloomington: AuthorHouse Ltd, Publishers. pp. 74–75. ISBN 978-1491876442. 
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Tucker, Spencer (2013). Encyclopedia of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency: A New Era of Modern Warfare. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO Ltd, Publishers. pp. 374–375. ISBN 978-1610692793. 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Tordoff, William (1997). Government and Politics in Africa (Third ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. pp. 97–98. ISBN 978-0333694749. 
  45. ↑ W. James, Martin (2004). Historical Dictionary of Angola. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 161–162. ISBN 978-1538111239. 
  46. ↑ "Savimbi 'died with gun in hand'". BBC News. وقت 14 June 2023 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 14 August 2023.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  47. ↑ Naufila, Marmiliano Keyse de Oliveira. "A search for an integrated peace framework for Angola: the case of Kuito-Bié and Viana" (PDF). University of KwaZulu Natal. وقت 14 August 2023 تي اصل (PDF) کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 14 August 2023.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  48. ↑ Pacatolo, Carlos (2022). The Emerging Predominant Party Systems in Angola (2008– 2017). Lisboa: CIEP – Centro de Investigação do Instituto de Estudos Políticos. pp. 3–15. https://iep.lisboa.ucp.pt/pt-pt/asset/10381/file. Retrieved 19 February 2023. 
  49. ↑ Lari (2004), Human Rights Watch (2005)
  50. ↑ For an overall analysis see Ricardo Soares de Oliveira, Magnificent and Beggar Land: Angola since the Civil War, London: Hurst, 2015
  51. ↑ Vidal, John (22 May 2016). "How southern Africa is coping with worst global food crisis for 25 years". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/may/22/southern-africa-worst-global-food-crisis-25-years. 
  52. ↑ "Who is Angola's new president Joao Lourenco? | DW | 26.09.2017". Deutsche Welle. وقت 3 February 2021 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 26 February 2021.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  53. ↑ "José Eduardo dos Santos: State funeral for Angola ex-president". BBC News. 28 August 2022. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-62705492. 
  54. ↑ "Angola's MPLA ruling party wins elections and presidency". Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/8/29/angola-ruling-party-wins-vote-and-president-a-second-term. 
  55. ↑ "Country Comparisons – Area". The World Factbook. United States Central Intelligence Agency. وقت 4 February 2021 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  56. ↑ "Cabinda | Angola, War, Oil & Conflict". Encyclopædia Britannica. وقت 9 February 2023 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 13 September 2023.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  57. ↑ Henderson, Lawrence (1979). Angola. Cornell University Press. 
  58. ↑ "Angola | History, Capital, Flag, Map, Population, Language, & Religion". Encyclopædia Britannica. وقت 27 September 2022 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 13 September 2023.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  59. ↑ Grantham, H. S.; Duncan, A.; Evans, T. D.; Jones, K. R.; Beyer, H. L.; Schuster, R.; Walston, J.; Ray, J. C. et al. (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material". Nature Communications 11 (1): 5978. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 33293507. Bibcode: 2020NatCo..11.5978G. 
  60. ↑ Terms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2023. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content. 
  61. ↑ "Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Angola". Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 62.3 62.4 62.5 62.6 62.7 سانچو:Citation-attribution
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 World Bank. "Angola: Country Climate and Development Report". Washington. حاصل ڪيل 9 December 2024. 
  64. ↑ USAID. "Climate change Adaption in ANGOLA" (PDF). حاصل ڪيل 9 December 2024. 
  65. ↑ Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative. "ND-GAIN Rankings". حاصل ڪيل 9 December 2024. 
  66. ↑ World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal. "Angola". climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org. حاصل ڪيل 2024-12-09. 
  67. ↑ Jones, Matthew W.; Peters, Glen P.; Gasser, Thomas; Andrew, Robbie M.; Schwingshackl, Clemens; Gütschow, Johannes; Houghton, Richard A.; Friedlingstein, Pierre et al. (2023-03-29). "National contributions to climate change due to historical emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide since 1850". Scientific Data 10 (1). doi:10.1038/s41597-023-02041-1. ISSN 2052-4463. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-023-02041-1. 
  68. ↑ Climate Watch. "Angola". www.climatewatchdata.org. حاصل ڪيل 2024-12-09. 
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