مواد ڏانھن هلو

پنجاب

بيھڪ: 31°N 74°E / 31°N 74°E / 31; 74
کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
(پنجاب جو خطو کان چوريل)
پنجاب
ਪੰਜਾਬ (گورمکي)
پنجاب (شاهه مکي)
تاريخي علائقو
Nickname: 
"پنج دريائن جي سرزمين"
ڏکڻ ايشيا ۾ پنجاب ڏيکاريل
ڏکڻ ايشيا ۾ پنجاب ڏيکاريل
جاگرافي بيهڪ: 31°N 74°E / 31°N 74°E / 31; 74
ملڪ  پاڪستان
 ڀارت
سڀ کان وڏو شهر لاهور
ٻيو وڏو شهر فيصل آباد
Named after Five tributaries of the Indus River سنڌو جا پنج معاون دريا "پنج ند"
Government
 • آبادي 11,50,00000 (پاڪستان، 2017ع آدمشماري)

7,50,00,000 (ڀارت، 2011ع آدمشماري)

ڪل: 19,00,00,000
Area
 • Total
 458,354.5 ڪ.م2 (176,971.7 ميل2)
Demographics based on British Punjab's colonial borders

پنجاب (Punjab) يا پنجاب جو خطو پاڪستان جي صوبي، پنجاب ۽ ڀارت جي رياست، ڀارتي پنجاب ۾ منقسم ھڪ خطي جو نالو آھي. پنجاب تاريخي طور تي ننڍي کنڊ جي اھم خطن ۾ شمار ڪيو وڃي ٿو. پنجاب خطي جي اوڀر ۾ ھماچل پرديش ھريانه ۽ راجسٿان، اولھه ۾ خيبر پختونخواه، اتر ۾ ڪشمير ۽ ڏکڻ ۾ سنڌ واقع آھن. پنجاب جا ماڻھو محنت ڪش آھن. ھن خطي ۾ فصلن جي وڏي مقدار سامھون ايندي آھي۔ پنجاب جو ٽي ڀاڱي چار مسلم آباد ڪيل سرزمين آھي، تنھن ھوندي به ھڪ حصو سکن جو آباد ڪيل آھي. پنجاب کي جاگرافيائي طور تي ٻن حصن ۾ ورھايو ويو آھي، ھڪ اوڀاريون پنجاب ۽ ٻيو اولاھون پنجاب۔ اوڀاريون پنجاب ننڍو آھي ۽ ڀارت جي ڪنٽرول ۾ آھي ۽ اولاھون پنجاب، پنجاب جو ٽي ڀاڱي چار آھي جيڪو پاڪستان جي قبضي ۾ آھي.

پنجاب، جن کي "پنج دريائن جي سرزمين" به چيو ويندو آهي، ڏکڻ ايشيا ۾ هڪ جيوپولٽيڪل، ثقافتي ۽ تاريخي علائقو آهي. اهو هندستاني برصغير ​​جي اتر اولهه واري حصي ۾ واقع آهي، جنهن ۾ جديد دور جي اوڀر پاڪستان ۽ اتر اولهه هندستان جا علائقا شامل آهن. پنجاب، پاڪستان ۾ شهرن جا وڏا شهر لاهور، فيصل آباد، راولپنڊي، گوجرانوالا، ملتان، سيالڪوٽ ۽ بهاولپور آهن، جڏهن ته هندستاني پنجاب جا وڏا شهر لڌيانا، امرتسر، چندي ڳڙهه، جالنڌر، پٽيالا، موهالي ۽ ڀٽنڊا آهن.

پنجاب پنجن دريائن جي ڪناري تي آباد ٿيل آبادين مان وڌيو، جيڪي قديم سنڌو ماٿري تهذيب جي شروعات ۾ ويجهي اوڀر ڏانهن هڪ اهم رستي جي طور تي ڪم ڪندا هئا، [2] جنهن جي شروعات 5000 قبل مسيح ۾ ٿي، جنهن کان پوءِ هند-آريائي ماڻهن جي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. زراعت پنجاب جي مکيه معاشي خصوصيت رهي آهي ۽ پنجابي ثقافت جي بنياد رکي ٿي.[3] پنجاب هڪ اهم زرعي علائقي جي طور تي اڀريو، خاص طور تي 1960ع جي ڏهاڪي جي وچ کان 1970ع جي ڏهاڪي جي وچ تائين سائي انقلاب کان پوءِ ۽ ان کي هندستان ۽ پاڪستان ٻنهي جي "ماني جي ٽوڪري" طور بيان ڪيو ويو آهي.[4]

پنجاب جي تاريخ تڪرارن جو هڪ سلسلو آهي، جيڪا مقامي خاندانن ۽ سلطنتن جي عروج سان نشان لڳل آهي. چوٿين صدي قبل مسيح ۾ سڪندر اعظم جي حملي کان پوءِ، چندر گپت موريا، موريا سلطنت قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ، پنجابي رياستن سان اتحاد ڪيو.[5][6] پوء هند-يوناني بادشاهت، ڪشان سلطنت ۽ هند-سيٿيئن جي لڳاتار حڪمراني قائم ٿيون، پر آخرڪار اوڀر پنجاب جي جاناپادن (جهڙوڪ يوڌيا، تريگارتا، اودمبرا، ارجونا ۽ ڪنندا بادشاهت، پاران شڪست کاڌيون.[7] پنجين ۽ ڇئين صدي عيسوي ۾، پنجاب کي تباهي ڪندڙ "هنن" (Huns) جي حملن جو سامنا ٿيو، تڏهن به ورڌانا خاندان اتر هندستان تي حڪمراني ڪندي، فتح مند ٿي اڀريو.[8] 8 هين صدي عيسوي هندو شاهي عروج ڏٺو ويو، جيڪي صفاري خاندان ۽ ساماني سلطنت کي شڪست ڏيڻ سان مشهور ٿي. ساڳئي وقت، تومارا خاندان ۽ ڪٽوچ خاندان، غزنوين جي حملي جي مزاحمت ڪندي، اوڀر پنجاب کي ڪنٽرول ڪيو.[9] غزنوي دور ۾، اسلام اولهائين پنجاب ۾ غالب ٿي ويو. پوءِ دهلي سلطنت غزنوي خاندانن جي جاءِ ورتي، جنهن ۾ تغلق خاندان ۽ سيد خاندان جي سلطانن کي پنجابي نسل طور بيان ڪيو ويو آهي.[10][11] 15هين صدي ۾ ڏکڻ پنجاب ۾ لانگهه سلطنت جو، لوڌي خاندان کي شڪست ڏيڻ سان، ظهور ٿيو. 18هين صدي ۾ مغل سلطنت جي زوال کان پوءِ، پنجاب ۾ افراتفري جو دور آيو. سال 1799 عيسوي ۾، سک سلطنت ڪشمير ۾ فتحن ۽ دراني سلطنت جي علائقن تي قبضي سان، پنهنجو راڄ قائم ڪيو ۽ پنجاب جي پيچيده ۽ متنوع تاريخ کي شڪل ڏني.

علائقي جي حدون، تاريخي احوالن تي ڌيان ڏيندي، غلط بيان ڪيل آهن. ان ڪري "پنجاب" جي اصطلاح جي جاگرافيائي تعريف وقت سان گڏ تبديل ٿيندي رهيي آهي. 16 صدي جي مغل سلطنت ۾ پنجاب جو علائقو ٽن حصن ، اولهه ۾ لاهور صوبي، اوڀر ۾ دهلي صوبي ۽ ڏکڻ ۾ ملتان صوبي ۾ ورهايو ويو هو. برطانوي راڄ هيٺ 1947ع ۾ هندستان جي ورهاڱي تائين، پنجاب صوبي ۾ موجوده هندستاني رياستن ۽ يونين علائقن پنجاب، هريانا، هماچل پرديش، چندي ڳڙهه ۽ دهلي ۽ پنجاب جا پاڪستاني علائقن ۽ اسلام آباد ڪيپيٽل ٽيريٽري کي شامل ڪيو ويو هو.

پنجاب علائقي جو غالب نسلي لساني گروهه پنجابي ماڻهو آهن، جيڪي هند-آريائي پنجابي ٻولي ڳالهائين ٿا. پنجابي مسلمان اولهه پنجاب (پاڪستان) ۾ اڪثريت ۾ آهن، جڏهن ته پنجابي سک اوڀر پنجاب (ڀارت) ۾ اڪثريت ۾ آهن. ٻين مذهبي گروهن ۾ هندو، عيسائي، جين مت، زرتشت، ٻڌمت جا مڃڻ وارا ۽ روي داسيا شامل آهن.

نالو

[سنواريو]

پنجاب جو نالو فارسي ٻوليءَ مان آهي، جنهن جا ٻه حصا "پنج" ۽ "آب" ساڳي معنيٰ جي سنسڪرت لفظن، "پنچا" (पञ्च) ۽ "آپ" (अप्) مان نڪتل آهن.[12] اهڙي طرح لفظ، "پنجاب " هند-آريائي لفظن، "پنج-اپ" جو مرڪب آهي ۽ ان جو معني "پنج پاڻين جي سرزمين" آهي ۽ جهلم، چناب، راوي، ستلج ۽ بياس دريائن جو حوالو ڏئي ٿو.[13] سڀئي سنڌو درياءَ جون معاون نديون آهن، جنهن ۾ ستلج سڀ کان وڏي آهي. "پنج دريائن جي سرزمين" جا حوالا مهاڀارت ۾ ملي سگهن ٿا، [14] جنهن ۾ هڪ علائقي جو نالو "پنچاندا" (पञ्चनद) يعني پنج نديون رکيو ويو آهي. [15] اڳ ۾، رگ ويد ۾، پنجاب کي "سپتا هنڌو" يا اويستا ۾، "هپتا هيندو" جي نالي سان سڃاتو ويندو هو، جن جو ترجمو "ست دريائن جي سرزمين" طورڪيو ويو آهي، باقي ٻه سنڌو ۽ ڪابل درياهه آهن.[16] قديم يوناني علائقي کي "پينٽا پوٽاميا" (Πενταποταμία) سڏيندا هئا، جنهن جي ساڳي معنيٰ آهي.[17][18][19]

تاريخ

[سنواريو]
پاڪستان ۾ ٽيڪسيلا هڪ عالمي ورثو آهي.
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو پنجاب جي تاريخ

قديم دور

[سنواريو]

پنجاب جو علائقو قديم ترين شهري سماجن مان هڪ (سنڌو ماٿري جي تهذيب) جي جڳهه طور سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. جيڪو تقريباً 3000 قبل مسيح کان ترقي ڪئي ۽ 1,000 سال پوء، هند-آريائي لڏپلاڻ کان پوءِ، جيڪي 1500 قبل مسيح ۽ 500 قبل مسيح جي وچ ۾ لهرن ۾ علائقي تي قبضو ڪيا، تيزي سان زوال پذير ٿيو.[20] بار بار ٿيندڙ قبائلي جنگيون، وڏين گروهن، سردارن ۽ بادشاهن جي حڪومتن جي واڌ کي متحرڪ ڪيو، جيڪا مقامي بادشاهتن تي حڪومت ڪندا هئا، [21] جنهن کي "مهاجاناپادا" سڏيو ويو. پنجاب ۾ بادشاهتن ۽ خاندانن جو عروج، قديم هندو جنگي شاعري، خاص طور تي مهاڀارت ۾ بيان ڪيو ويو آهي.[22] مهاڀارت ۾ بيان ڪيل جنگيون هن علائقن ۾ وڙهيون ويون، جيڪا هاڻي هريانا رياست ۽ تاريخي پنجاب جو علائقو آهي. گنڌارا، ڪمبوجا، تريگارتا، آنڌرا، پوروا، بهليڪا (پنجاب جا باختري آبادگار)، يوڌيا ۽ ٻين ڪروڪشيتر ۾ وڙهيل عظيم جنگ ۾ ڪوروَن جو ساٿ ڏنو. [23] فوجا سنگهه ۽ ايل. ايم. جوشي مطابق: "ان ۾ ڪو شڪ ناهي ته ڪمبوجا، داردا، ڪيڪيا، آنڌرا، پوروا، يوڌيا، مالوا، سينداو ۽ ڪورو گڏيل طور تي قديم پنجاب جي بهادر روايت ۽ گڏيل ثقافت ۾ حصو ورتو آهي."[24]

سڪندر اعظم جا حملا

[سنواريو]
راجا پورس، قديم پنجاب جي پهرين ڄاتل سڃاتل بادشاهن مان هڪ، سڪندر اعظم خلاف وڙهيو. سندس هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ کي الونزو چيپل پاران 1865ع ۾ ڪيل هن نقاشي ۾ ڏيکاريو ويو آهي.

هن علائقي جو سڀ کان قديم ڄاتل سڃاتل مقامي بادشاهه "راجا پورس" جي نالي سان مشهور هو، جنهن سڪندر اعظم خلاف هائيڊاسپس (جهلم) جي مشهور جنگ وڙهي. سندس بادشاهت هائيڊاسپس (جهلم) ۽ ايسينس (چناب) دريائن جي وچ ۾ پکڙيل هئي؛ اسٽرابو هن علائقي کي لڳ ڀڳ 300 شهرن تائين ڦهليل سڏيو آهي.[25] پورس ۽ ابيسار (ٻيو راجا) ٽيڪسلا جي بادشاهه، اومفس جيڪا سندس خاندان جي ٻئي شاخ سان تعلق رکندڙ هو، سان دشمني وارو تعلق هو.[26] جڏهن سڪندر اعظم جون فوجون اوڀر طرف لڏپلاڻ ڪندي سنڌو پار ڪيون، شايد اُداڀنڊاپورا ۾،[27] ٽيڪسلا جو حڪمران، اومفس هن جو استقبال ڪيو. اومفس اميد ڪئي ته پورس ۽ ابيسار ٻنهي کي، سڪندر جي فوجن جي طاقت جي خوف کي استعمال ڪندي ۽ سفارتي مشن جي ذريعي شڪست تسليم ڪرڻ تي مجبور ڪئي سگهندو. ابيسار تسليم قبول ڪيو پر پورس تسليم ڪرڻ کان انڪار ڪيو. [28] نتيجي طور، سڪندر اعظم پورس سان جنگ جو فيصلو ڪيو ۽ هن طرح سال 326 ق.م ۾ هائيڊسپس، جنگ جو صحيح ماڳ اڃا تائين نامعلوم آهي، جي جنگ شروع ٿي. جئين ته جنگ کي هڪ فيصلي واري يوناني فتح سمجهيو ويندو آهي؛ بوس ورٿ يوناني ذريعن، جيڪا مبالغي وارا آهن، مٿان يقين ڪرڻ جي خلاف خبردار ڪيو آهي.[29]

اليگزينڊر پوء، پنهنجي گهوڙي جي ياد ۾، جيڪو جنگ دوران مارجي ويو هو، جنگ جي ميدان ۾ فتح جي جاءِ تي بوڪيفالا ۽ نيڪايا ٻه شهر قائم ڪيا.[30] ٽيٽراڊراخم (يوناني سڪا) ، جيڪا پوء ٺاهيا ويا، ۾ سڪندر کي گهوڙي تي سوار، ساريسا (ڊگهي نيزي) سان هٿياربند، هڪ هاٿي تي سوار هندستانين جي هڪ جوڙي تي حملو ڪندي، ڏيکاريو ويو آھي.[31] پورس هٿيار ڦٽا ڪرڻ کان انڪار ڪيو ۽ جيستائين هو زخمي نه ٿيو ۽ سندس فوج شڪست نه کاڌي، هڪ هاٿي جي مٿان گهميندو رهيو. گرفتاري کانپوء جڏهن سڪندر کان پڇيو ته هن ڪهڙي سلوڪ جي اميد رکي ٿو؟ پورس جواب ڏنو ته "مون سان اهڙو سلوڪ ڪيو، جيئن هڪ بادشاهه ٻئي بادشاهه سان ڪندو اهي". [32] هڪ طرفي نتيجن جي باوجود، سڪندر پورس کان متاثر ٿيو ۽ هن کي معزول نه ڪرڻ جو انتخاب ڪيو. [33] [34] نه رڳو سندس علائقو بحال ڪيو پر سڪندر جي فوجن سان گڏ گلوسس، جيڪو پورس جي بادشاهت جي اتر اوڀر ۾ حڪومت ڪندو هو، جي علائقن کي به پورس جي سلطنت ۾ ملائي ڇڏيو. [35]

1000 ق.م ۾ سڪندر جي موت کان پوءِ، پرديڪس پنهنجي سلطنت جو ريجنٽ بڻجي ويو ۽ 500 ق.م ۾ پرديڪس جي قتل کان پوءِ، اينٽيپيٽر نئون ريجنٽ بڻجي ويو. ڊيوڊورس جي مطابق، اينٽيپيٽر سنڌو درياهه جي ڪناري وارن علائقن تي پورس جي اختيار کي تسليم ڪيو. بهرحال، يوڊيمس، جيڪو پنجاب علائقي ۾ سڪندر جي عملدار طور ڪم ڪندو هو، غداري سان پورس کي قتل ڪيو.

موريان سلطنت (تقريبن 320-180 ق.م)

چندرگپت موريا، ڪوٽيليا جي مدد سان، سانچو: ق.م. جي آس پاس پنهنجي سلطنت قائم ڪئي هئي. چندرگپت موريا جي شروعاتي زندگي واضح ناهي. ڪوٽيليا نوجوان چندرگپت کي ٽيڪسلا جي يونيورسٽي ۾ داخل ڪرايو ته جيئن هن کي فن ۾ تعليم ڏني وڃي.

Later, tetradrachms would be minted depicting Alexander on horseback, armed with a sarissa and attacking a pair of Indians on an elephant. Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed. When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat another king". Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him. Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom.[36]

After Alexander's death in سانچو:BCE, Perdiccas became the regent of his empire, and after Perdiccas's murder in سانچو:BCE, Antipater became the new regent.[37] According to Diodorus, Antipater recognized Porus's authority over the territories along the Indus River. However, Eudemus, who had served as Alexander's satrap in the Punjab region, treacherously killed Porus.[38]

موريا سلطنت (320-180 ق.م)

[سنواريو]

Chandragupta Maurya, with the aid of Kautilya, had established his empire around سانچو:BCE. The early life of Chandragupta Maurya is not clear. Kautilya enrolled the young Chandragupta in the university at Taxila to educate him in the arts, sciences, logic, mathematics, warfare, and administration. Megasthenes' account, as it has survived in Greek texts that quote him, states that Alexander the Great and Chandragupta met, which if true would mean his rule started earlier than سانچو:BCE. As Alexander never crossed the Beas River, so his territory probably lay in the Punjab region.[حوالو گهربل] With the help of the small Janapadas of Punjab, he had gone on to conquer much of the North West Indian subcontinent.[39] He then defeated the Nanda rulers in Pataliputra to capture the throne. Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander's successor in the east, Seleucus when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of the Indus and offered a marriage, including a portion of Bactria, while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants.[حوالو گهربل] The chief of the Mauryan military was also always a Yaudheyan warrior according to the Bijaygadh Pillar inscription, which states that the Yaudheyas elected their own chief who also served as the general for the Mauryans.[40][41] The Mauryan military was also made up vastly of men from the Punjab Janapadas.[42]

Chandragupta's rule was very well organised. The Mauryans had an autocratic and centralised administration system, aided by a council of ministers, and also a well-established espionage system. Much of Chandragupta's success is attributed to Chanakya, the author of the Arthashastra. Much of the Mauryan rule had a strong bureaucracy that had regulated tax collection, trade and commerce, industrial activities, mining, statistics and data, maintenance of public places, and upkeep of temples.[حوالو گهربل]

Medieval period

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Hindu Shahis (c. 820–1022 CE)

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In the 9th century, the Hindu Shahi dynasty originating from the region of Oddiyana,[43][44][45] replaced the Taank kingdom, ruling Western Punjab along with eastern Afghanistan.[46] The tribe of the Gakhars/Khokhars, formed a large part of the Hindu Shahi army according to the Persian historian Firishta.[47] The most notable rulers of the empire were Lalliya, Bhimadeva and Jayapala who were accredited for military victories.

Lalliya had reclaimed the territory at and around Kabul between 879 and 901 CE after it had been lost under his predecessor to the Saffarid dynasty.[45]سانچو:Page needed He was described as a fearsome Shahi. Two of his ministers reconstructed by Rahman as Toramana and Asata are said to of have taken advantage of Amr al-Layth's preoccupation with rebellions in Khorasan, by successfully raiding Ghazna around 900 CE.[45]سانچو:Page needed

After a defeat in Eastern Afghanistan suffered on the Shahi ally Lawik, Bhimadeva mounted a combined attack around 963 CE.[45]سانچو:Page needed Abu Ishaq Ibrahim was expelled from Ghazna and Shahi-Lawik strongholds were restored in Kabul and adjacent areas.[45]سانچو:Page needed This victory appears to have been commemorated in the Hund Slab Inscription (HSI).[45]سانچو:Page needed

Turkic rule (c. 1030–1320 CE)

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Silver copper coin of Khizr Khan, founder of the Sayyid dynasty[48]

The Turkic Ghaznavids in the tenth century overthrew the Hindu Shahis and consequently ruled for 157 years in Western Punjab, gradually declining as a power until the Ghurid conquest of Lahore by Muhammad of Ghor in 1186, deposing the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik.[49] Following the death of Muhammad of Ghor in 1206 by Punjabi assassins near the Jhelum river, the Ghurid state fragmented and was replaced in northern India by the Delhi Sultanate.

Tughlaq dynasty (c. 1320–1410 CE)

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The Tughlaq dynasty's reign formally started in 1320 in Delhi when Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq after defeating Khusrau Khan at the Battle of Lahrawat.

During Ghazi Malik's reign, in 1321 he sent his eldest son Jauna Khan, later known as Muhammad bin Tughlaq, to Deogir to plunder the Hindu kingdoms of Arangal and Tilang (now part of Telangana). His first attempt was a failure.[50] Four months later, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent large army reinforcements for his son asking him to attempt plundering Arangal and Tilang again.[51] This time Jauna Khan succeeded and Arangal fell, it was renamed to Sultanpur, and all plundered wealth, state treasury and captives were transferred from the captured kingdom to the Delhi Sultanate.The Muslim aristocracy in Lukhnauti (Bengal) invited Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq to extend his coup and expand eastwards into Bengal by attacking Shamsuddin Firoz Shah, which he did over 1324–1325 CE,[50] after placing Delhi under control of his son Ulugh Khan, and then leading his army to Lukhnauti. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq succeeded in this campaign.

After his father's death in 1325 CE, Muhammad bin Tughlaq assumed power and his rule saw the empire expand to most of the Indian subcontinent, its peak in terms of geographical reach.[52] He attacked and plundered Malwa, Gujarat, Lakhnauti, Chittagong, Mithila and many other regions in India.[53] His distant campaigns were expensive, although each raid and attack on non-Muslim kingdoms brought new looted wealth and ransom payments from captured people. The extended empire was difficult to retain, and rebellions became commonplace all over the Indian subcontinent.[54] Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in March 1351[55] while trying to chase and punish people for rebellion and their refusal to pay taxes in Sindh and Gujarat.[56]

After Muhammad bin Tughlaq's death, the Tughlaq empire was in a state of disarray with many regions assuming independence; it was at this point that Firuz Shah Tughlaq, Ghazi Malik's nephew, took reign. His father's name was Rajab (the younger brother of Ghazi Malik) who had the title Sipahsalar. His mother Naila was a Punjabi Bhatti princess (daughter of Rana Mal) from Dipalpur and Abohar according to the historian William Crooke.[57][58] The southern states had drifted away from the Sultanate and there were rebellions in Gujarat and Sindh, while "Bengal asserted its independence." He led expeditions against Bengal in 1353 and 1358. He captured Cuttack, desecrated the Jagannath Temple, Puri, and forced Raja Gajpati of Jajnagar in Orissa to pay tribute.[59][60] He also laid siege to the Kangra Fort and forced Nagarkot to pay tribute.[61] During this time, Tatar Khan of Greater Khorasan attacked Punjab, but he was defeated and his face slashed by the sword given by Feroz Shah Tughlaq to Raja Kailas Pal who ruled the Nagarkot region in Punjab.[62]

Sayyid dynasty (c. 1410–1450 CE)

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پڻ ڏسو: Sayyid dynasty

Khizr Khan established the Sayyid dynasty, the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate after the fall of the Tughlaqs.[63]

Following Timur's 1398 sack of Delhi,[64] he appointed Khizr Khan as deputy of Multan (Punjab).[65] He held Lahore, Dipalpur, Multan and Upper Sindh.[66][67] Khizr Khan captured Delhi on 28 May 1414 thereby establishing the Sayyid dynasty.[65] Khizr Khan did not take up the title of sultan, but continued the fiction of his allegiance to Timur as Rayat-i-Ala(vassal) of the Timurids - initially that of Timur, and later his son Shah Rukh.[68][69] After the accession of Khizr Khan, the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Sindh were reunited under the Delhi Sultanate, where he spent his time subduing rebellions.[70] Punjab was the powerbase of Khizr Khan and his successors as the bulk of the Delhi army during their reigns came from Multan and Dipalpur.[71]

Khizr Khan was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah after his death on 20 May 1421. Mubarak Shah referred to himself as Muizz-ud-Din Mubarak Shah on his coins, removing the Timurid name with the name of the Caliph, and declared himself a Shah.[72][73] He defeated the advancing Hoshang Shah Ghori, ruler of Malwa Sultanate and forced him to pay heavy tribute early in his reign.[74] Mubarak Shah also put down the rebellion of Jasrath Khokhar and managed to fend off multiple invasions by the Timurids of Kabul.[75]

The last ruler of the Sayyids, Ala-ud-Din, voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in favour of Bahlul Khan Lodi on 19 April 1451, and left for Badaun, where he died in 1478.[76]

Langah Sultanate (c. 1450–1540 CE)

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In 1445, Sultan Qutbudin, chief of Langah (a Jat Zamindar tribe),[77][78][79][80] established the Langah Sultanate in Multan after the fall of the Sayyid dynasty. Husseyn Langah I (reigned 1456–1502) was the second ruler of Langah Sultanate. He undertook military campaigns in Punjab and captured Chiniot and Shorkot from the Lodis. Shah Husayn successfully repulsed attempted invasion by the Lodis led by Tatar Khan and Barbak Shah, as well as his daughter Zeerak Rumman.[81]

Modern period

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Mughal Empire (c. 1526–1761 CE)

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The Mughals came to power in the early 16th century and gradually expanded to control all of the Punjab from their capital at Lahore. During the Mughal era, Saadullah Khan, born into a family of Punjabi agriculturalists[82] belonging to the Thaheem tribe[83] from Chiniot[84] remained grand vizier (or Prime Minister) of the Mughal Empire in the period 1645–1656.[84] Other prominent Muslims from Punjab who rose to nobility during the Mughal Era include Wazir Khan,[85] Adina Beg Arain,[86] and Shahbaz Khan Kamboh.[87] The Mughal Empire ruled the region until it was severely weakened in the eighteenth century.[46] As Mughal power weakened, Afghan rulers took control of the region.[46] Contested by the Marathas and Afghans, the region was the center of the growing influence of the misls, who expanded and established the Sikh Confederacy as the Mughals and Afghans weakened, ultimately ruling the Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and territories north into the Himalayas.[46]

18th Century Punjabi Muslim states

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Pakpattan state (1692–1810 CE)

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Following the disintegration of the Mughal Empire, the shrine's Dīwān was able to forge a political independent state centered on Pakpattan.[88] In 1757, Dīwān 'Abd as-Subḥān gathered an army of his Jat murīds, attacked the Raja of Bikaner, and thereby expanded the shrine's territorial holdings for the first time east of the Sutlej.[88] Around 1776, the Dīwān, supported mainly by his Wattu murīds, successfully repelled an attack by the Sikh Nakai Misl, resulting in the death of the Nakai leader, Heera Singh Sandhu.[88]

Sial State (1723 - 1816)

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پڻ ڏسو: Sial dynasty

Sial state was established by the 13 Sial Chief Nawab Walidad Khan Sial in 1723.[89] He gradually gained control of the lower Rachna doab, including the cities of Chiniot, Pindi Bhattian, Jhang and Mankera.[90]

Next chief, Inayatullah Khan (r. 1747– 1787) was a successful general who won 22 battles against Bhangi Misl and the Multan chiefs.[91]

Sikh Empire invaded Jhang multiple times from 1801 to 1816.[92] Sial state was annexed by Sikh Empire and Ahmad Khan Sial was awarded a Jagir by Ranjit Singh.[93]

Sikh Empire (c. 1799–1849 CE)

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پڻ ڏسو: Sikh Empire
Illustration of Ranjit Singh, founder of the Sikh Empire

In the 19th century, Maharajah Ranjit Singh established the Sikh Empire based in the Punjab.[94] The empire existed from 1799, when Ranjit Singh captured Lahore, to 1849, when it was defeated and conquered in the Second Anglo-Sikh War. It was forged on the foundations of the Khalsa from a collection of autonomous Sikh misls.[95][96] At its peak in the 19th century, the Empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west to western Tibet in the east, and from Mithankot in the south to Kashmir in the north. It was divided into four provinces: Lahore, in Punjab, which became the Sikh capital; Multan, also in Punjab; Peshawar; and Kashmir from 1799 to 1849. Religiously diverse, with an estimated population of 3.5 million in 1831 (making it the 19th most populous country at the time),[97] it was the last major region of the Indian subcontinent to be annexed by the British Empire.

British Punjab (c. 1849–1947 CE)

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پڻ ڏسو: Punjab Province (British India)

The Sikh Empire ruled the Punjab until the British annexed it in 1849 following the First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars.[98] Most of the Punjabi homeland formed a province of British India, though a number of small princely states retained local rulers who recognized British authority.[46] The Punjab with its rich farmlands became one of the most important colonial assets.[46] Lahore was a noted center of learning and culture, and Rawalpindi became an important military installation.[46] Most Punjabis supported the British during World War I, providing men and resources to the war effort even though the Punjab remained a source of anti colonial activities.[99]:163 Disturbances in the region increased as the war continued.[46] At the end of the war, high casualty rates, heavy taxation, inflation, and a widespread influenza epidemic disrupted Punjabi society.[46] In 1919, Colonel Reginald Dyer ordered troops under command to fire on a crowd of demonstrators, mostly Sikhs in Amritsar. The Jallianwala massacre fueled the Indian independence movement.[46] Nationalists declared the independence of India from Lahore in 1930 but were quickly suppressed.[46] When the Second World War broke out, nationalism in British India had already divided into religious movements.[46] Many Sikhs and other minorities supported the Hindus, who promised a secular multicultural and multireligious society, and Muslim leaders in Lahore passed a resolution to work for a Muslim Pakistan, making the Punjab region a center of growing conflict between Indian and Pakistani nationalists.[46] At the end of the war, the British granted separate independence to India and Pakistan, setting off massive communal violence as Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindu and Sikh Punjabis fled east to India.[46]

The British Raj had major political, cultural, philosophical, and literary consequences in the Punjab, including the establishment of a new system of education. During the independence movement, many Punjabis played a significant role, including Madan Lal Dhingra, Sukhdev Thapar, Ajit Singh Sandhu, Bhagat Singh, Udham Singh, Kartar Singh Sarabha, Bhai Parmanand, Choudhry Rahmat Ali, and Lala Lajpat Rai. At the time of partition in 1947, the province was split into East and West Punjab. East Punjab (48%) became part of India, while West Punjab (52%) became part of Pakistan.[100] The Punjab bore the brunt of the civil unrest following partition, with casualties estimated to be in the millions.[101][102][103][104]

Another major consequence of partition was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity occurred in all districts across Punjab owing to the new international border that cut through the province. This rapid demographic shift was primarily due to wide scale migration but also caused by large-scale religious cleansing riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical demographer Tim Dyson, in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately became Indian Punjab following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately became Pakistani Punjab, all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951.[105]

جاگرافي

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آبهوا

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آباديات

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معيشت

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پنجاب جو تاريخي علائقو هندستان ۽ پاڪستان مان خوراڪ جي پيداوار جو نسبتاً وڏو حصو پيدا ڪري ٿو. هي علائقو ڪڻڪ جي وسيع پوک لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي. ان کان علاوه، چانور، ڪپهه، ڪمند، ميوا ۽ ڀاڄيون پڻ پوکيون وينديون آهن.

پاڪستان ۾ پنجاب علائقي جي زرعي پيداوار پاڪستان جي جي ڊي پي ۾ اهم حصو ڏئي ٿي. هندستاني ۽ پاڪستاني پنجاب ٻنهي کي پنهنجن ملڪن جو بهترين انفراسٽرڪچر سمجهيو ويندو آهي. هندستاني رياست پنجاب هن وقت هندستان جي 16هين امير ترين رياست آهي. پاڪستاني پنجاب پاڪستان جي غذائي اناج جي پيداوار جو %68 پيدا ڪري ٿو. پاڪستان جي جي ڊي پي ۾ ان جو حصو تاريخي طور تي %51.8 کان %54.7 تائين آهي ۽ ڪنهن به صوبي جي في ماڻهو جي ڀيٽ ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ آهي.

متبادل طور تي، پنجاب پڻ معيشت ۾ اضافو ڪري رهيو آهي جنهن سان پنجاب جي نوجوانن جي نجي شعبي ۾ روزگار ۾ اضافو ٿيو آهي. سرڪاري اسڪيمون جهڙوڪ "گهر گهر روزگار" ۽ "ڪاروبار مشن" خانگي شعبي ۾ روزگار جي صلاحيت کي وڌايو آهي. آڪٽوبر 2019ع تائين، 32,000 کان وڌيڪ نوجوانن کي مختلف نوڪرين ۾ رکيو ويو آهي ۽ 12,000 کي مهارت جي تربيت ڏني وئي آهي.

تصويرون

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پڻ ڏسو

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نشان بابباب Punjab
نشان بابباب پنجاب

حوالا

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  1. ↑ "Elections in Bihar, Campaigning in Punjab to Woo Bihari Migrants", 4 October 2015, اصل کان 29 March 2023 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 17 February 2024, "Punjab, as per official estimates, is home to some two million migrants from Bihar. They are engaged in various jobs and occupations in Punjab. Of this, over 1.3 million are living in and around the industrial hub of Ludhiana." 
  2. ↑ Nayar, Kamala Elizabeth (2012) (en ۾). The Punjabis in British Columbia: Location, Labour, First Nations, and Multiculturalism. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-7735-4070-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=q7pO-IZY218C&pg=PA7. 
  3. ↑ Nayar, Kamala Elizabeth (2012) (en ۾). The Punjabis in British Columbia: Location, Labour, First Nations, and Multiculturalism. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-7735-4070-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=q7pO-IZY218C&pg=PA7. 
  4. ↑ Nayar, Kamala Elizabeth (2012) (en ۾). The Punjabis in British Columbia: Location, Labour, First Nations, and Multiculturalism. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-7735-4070-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=q7pO-IZY218C&pg=PA7. 
  5. ↑ Mookerji, Radhakumud (1 January 2016) (en ۾). Chandragupta Maurya and His Times. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 22. ISBN 978-81-208-0433-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=t5g2EAAAQBAJ&dq=yaudheyas+chandragupta&pg=PA22. Retrieved 30 January 2023. "Rhys Davids [Buddhist India p. 267] points out that 'it was from the Panjab that Chandragupta recruited the nucleus of the force with which he besieged and conquered Dhana Nanda'" 
  6. ↑ Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra; Altekar, Anant Sadashiv (1986) (en ۾). Vakataka gupta age: circa 200–550. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.. p. 31. ISBN 978-81-208-0026-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=OswUZtL1_CUC&q=madra+republic. Retrieved 9 July 2023. 
  7. ↑ Tarn, William Woodthorpe (24 June 2010) (en ۾). The Greeks in Bactria and India. Cambridge University Press. p. 324. ISBN 978-1-108-00941-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=-HeJS3nE9cAC&pg=PA324. "Audumbaras, Trigartas, Kunindas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas - began to coin in the first century BC, which means that they had become independent kingdoms or republics; but the coins do not all tell the same story. Those of the two sounthernmost peoples begin somewhere about 100 BC and bear the legends 'Victory of the Arjunayanas' and (on their copper issue) 'Victory of the Yaudheyas', which point to their having won independence by the sword." 
  8. ↑ Cunningham, Alexander (23 February 2023) (en ۾). Archaeological Survey of India: Vol. 1. BoD – Books on Demand. p. 280. ISBN 978-3-382-11929-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=FN2vEAAAQBAJ&dq=alexander+cunningham+vardhana+empire&pg=PA280. Retrieved 9 July 2023. 
  9. ↑ Hutchison, John; Vogel, Jean Philippe (1994) (en ۾). History of the Panjab Hill States. Asian Educational Services. p. 123. ISBN 978-81-206-0942-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=3btDw4S2FmYC&q=diwan+i+salman+jalandhar. Retrieved 30 January 2023. 
  10. ↑ Easton, Richard M. (2019) (en ۾). India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765. University of California Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0520325128. "The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan..." 
  11. ↑ Fauja Singh (1972). History of the Punjab: A.D. 1000-1526.. Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University. p. 152. https://books.google.com/books?id=fLW1AAAAIAAJ. Retrieved 9 July 2023. ""The Tughlaqs had close links with the Punjab . According to Firishta and Sujan Rai Bhandari, Tughlaq, the founder of the dynasty, was born in the Punjab to a Jat mother"" 
  12. ↑ Gandhi, Rajmohan (2013). Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten. New Delhi, India, Urbana, Illinois: Aleph Book Company. p. 1 ("Introduction"). ISBN 978-93-83064-41-0. 
  13. ↑ "Punjab." Pp. 107 in Encyclopædia Britannica (9th ed.), vol. 20.
  14. ↑ Kenneth Pletcher, ed (2010). The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places. Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 199. ISBN 978-1-61530-202-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=GdKcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA199. "The word's origin can perhaps be traced to panca nada, Sanskrit for "five rivers" and the name of a region mentioned in the ancient epic the Mahabharata." 
  15. ↑ Rajesh Bala (2005). "Foreign Invasions and their Effect on Punjab". in Sukhdial Singh. Punjab History Conference, Thirty-seventh Session, March 18–20, 2005: Proceedings. Punjabi University. p. 80. ISBN 978-81-7380-990-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=PzduAAAAMAAJ. ""The word Punjab is a compound of two words-Panj (Five) and aab (Water), thus signifying the land of five waters or rivers. This origin can perhaps be traced to panch nada, Sanskrit for "Five rivers" the word used before the advent of Muslims with a knowledge of Persian to describe the meeting point of the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers, before they joined the Indus."" 
  16. ↑ Grenet, Frantz (2005). "An Archaeologist's Approach to Avestan Geography". Birth of the Persian Empire Volume I. I.B.Tauris. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-7556-2459-1. 
  17. ↑ Lassen, Christian. 1827. Commentatio Geographica atque Historica de Pentapotamia Indica آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 18 November 2022 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين. [A Geographical and Historical Commentary on Indian Pentapotamia]. Weber. p. 4: "That part of India which today we call by the Persian name ''Penjab'' is named Panchanada in the sacred language of the Indians; either of which names may be rendered in Greek by Πενταποταμια. The Persian origin of the former name is not at all in doubt, although the words of which it is composed are both Indian and Persian.... But, in truth, that final word is never, to my knowledge, used by the Indians in proper names compounded in this way; on the other hand, there exist multiple Persian names which end with that word, e.g., Doab and Nilab. Therefore, it is probable that the name Penjab, which is today found in all geographical books, is of more recent origin and is to be attributed to the Muslim kings of India, among whom the Persian language was mostly in use. That the Indian name Panchanada is ancient and genuine is evident from the fact that it is already seen in the Ramayana and Mahabharata, the most ancient Indian poems, and that no other exists in addition to it among the Indians; for Panchála, which English translations of the Ramayana render with Penjab...is the name of another region, entirely distinct from Pentapotamia...."سانچو:Whose translation
  18. ↑ History of the Panjáb from the Remotest Antiquity to the Present Time. Calcultta Central Press Company. 1891. p. 1. https://books.google.com/books?id=RzBAAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR1. "The Panjáb, the Pentapotamia of the Greek historians, the north-western region of the empire of Hindostán, derives its name from two Persian words, panj (five), an áb (water), having reference to the five rivers which confer on the country its distinguishing features."" 
  19. ↑ "Lahore of Pre Historic Era". Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan 52 (2): 73. 2015. http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/history/PDF-FILES/7.%20Kanwal%20Khalid_v52_2_15.pdf. Retrieved 20 January 2019. "The earliest mention of five rivers in the collective sense was found in Yajurveda and a word Panchananda was used, which is a Sanskrit word to describe a land where five rivers meet. [...] In the later period, the word Pentapotamia was used by the Greeks to identify this land. (Penta means 5 and potamia, water ___ the land of five rivers) Muslim Historians implied the word "Punjab" for this region. Again, it was not a new word because in Persian-speaking areas, there are references of this name given to any particular place where five rivers or lakes meet.". 
  20. ↑ Minahan, James (2012) (en ۾). Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 257–259. ISBN 978-1-59884-659-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=abNDLZQ6quYC&pg=PA257. Retrieved 21 August 2022. 
  21. ↑ Minahan, James (2012) (en ۾). Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 257–259. ISBN 978-1-59884-659-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=abNDLZQ6quYC&pg=PA257. Retrieved 21 August 2022. 
  22. ↑ Minahan, James (2012) (en ۾). Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 257–259. ISBN 978-1-59884-659-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=abNDLZQ6quYC&pg=PA257. Retrieved 21 August 2022. 
  23. ↑ Buddha Parkash, Evolution of Heroic Tradition in Ancient Panjab, p 36.
  24. ↑ Joshi, L. M., and Fauja Singh. History of Panjab, Vol I. p. 4.
  25. ↑ Bosworth, Albert Brian (1993). "The campaign of the Hydaspes". Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press. pp. 125–130. 
  26. ↑ Bosworth, Albert Brian (1993). "The campaign of the Hydaspes". Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press. pp. 125–130. 
  27. ↑ Bosworth, Albert Brian (1993). "The campaign of the Hydaspes". Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press. pp. 125–130. 
  28. ↑ Bosworth, Albert Brian (1993). "The campaign of the Hydaspes". Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press. pp. 125–130. 
  29. ↑ Bosworth, Albert Brian (1993). "The campaign of the Hydaspes". Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press. pp. 125–130. 
  30. ↑ Bosworth, Albert Brian (1993). "The campaign of the Hydaspes". Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press. pp. 125–130. 
  31. ↑ Holt, Frank Lee (2003). Alexander the Great and the mystery of the elephant medallions. University of California Press. 
  32. ↑ Rogers, p.200
  33. ↑ Anson, Edward M. (2013). Alexander the Great: Themes and Issues. Bloomsbury. p. 151. ISBN 9781441193797. 
  34. ↑ Roy 200423–28.
  35. ↑ Bosworth, Albert Brian (1993). "From the Hydaspes to the Southern Ocean". Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press. 
  36. ↑ Bosworth, Albert Brian (1993). "From the Hydaspes to the Southern Ocean". Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press. 
  37. ↑ Heckel, Waldemar (2006). Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire. Wiley. ISBN 9781405112109. 
  38. ↑ Irfan Habib; Vivekanand Jha (2004). Mauryan India. A People's History of India. Aligarh Historians Society / Tulika Books. p. 16. ISBN 978-81-85229-92-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=nUvGQgAACAAJ. 
  39. ↑ Mookerji, Radhakumud (2016-01-01) (en ۾). Chandragupta Maurya and His Times. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 22. ISBN 978-81-208-0433-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=t5g2EAAAQBAJ&dq=yaudheyas+chandragupta&pg=PA22. Retrieved 30 January 2023. 
  40. ↑ Gupta, Gyan Swarup (1999) (en ۾). India: From Indus Valley Civilisation to Mauryas. Concept Publishing Company. p. 194. ISBN 978-81-7022-763-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=jbjT9GG__nEC&dq=chief+of+the+mauryan+military+yaudheyas&pg=PA194. Retrieved 30 January 2023. 
  41. ↑ Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1969) (en ۾). Corporate Life in Ancient India. Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay. p. 222. https://books.google.com/books?id=VJQ6AAAAIAAJ&q=bijaygadh+pillar+inscription+yaudheyas. Retrieved 21 March 2023. 
  42. ↑ Mookerji, Radhakumud (2016-01-01) (en ۾). Chandragupta Maurya and His Times. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 27. ISBN 978-81-208-0433-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=t5g2EAAAQBAJ&dq=mauryan+military+mostly+Punjabi&pg=PA27. Retrieved 30 January 2023. 
  43. ↑ Rahman, Abdul (2002). "New Light on the Khingal, Turk and the Hindu Sahis". Ancient Pakistan XV: 37–42. http://journals.uop.edu.pk/papers/AP_v15_37to42.pdf. Retrieved 11 January 2023. "The Hindu Śāhis were therefore neither Bhattis, or Janjuas, nor Brahmans. They were simply Uḍis/Oḍis. It can now be seen that the term Hindu Śāhi is a misnomer and, based as it is merely upon religious discrimination, should be discarded and forgotten. The correct name is Uḍi or Oḍi Śāhi dynasty.". 
  44. ↑ Meister, Michael W. (2005). "The Problem of Platform Extensions at Kafirkot North". Ancient Pakistan XVI: 41–48. http://journals.uop.edu.pk/papers/AP_v16_41to48.pdf. Retrieved 11 January 2023. "Rehman (2002: 41) makes a good case for calling the Hindu Śāhis by a more accurate name, "Uḍi Śāhis".". 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 45.3 45.4 45.5 Rehman 1976.
  46. ↑ 46.00 46.01 46.02 46.03 46.04 46.05 46.06 46.07 46.08 46.09 46.10 46.11 46.12 46.13 Minahan, James (2012) (en ۾). Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 257–259. ISBN 978-1-59884-659-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=abNDLZQ6quYC&pg=PA257. Retrieved 21 August 2022. 
  47. ↑ Rehman 197648-50.
  48. ↑ Richard M. Eaton (2019) (en ۾). India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765. University of California Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0520325128. "The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan..." 
  49. ↑ Mehta, Jaswant Lal (1979) (en ۾). Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 76. ISBN 978-81-207-0617-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=iUk5k5AN54sC&pg=PA76. Retrieved 9 September 2022. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 William Lowe (Translator), Muntakhabu-t-tawārīkh, p. 296, at Google Books, Volume 1, pages 296-301
  51. ↑ Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians - The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pages 233-234
  52. ↑ Muḥammad ibn Tughluq آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 27 April 2015 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين. Encyclopædia Britannica
  53. ↑ Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians - The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 236–237
  54. ↑ Tarikh-I Firoz Shahi Ziauddin Barni, The History of India by its own Historians - The Muhammadan Period, Volume 3, Trubner London, pp. 235–240
  55. ↑ Jackson 2003162.
  56. ↑ Vincent A Smith, The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911, p. 217, at Google Books, Chapter 2, pp. 242–248, Oxford University Press
  57. ↑ Crooke, William (1890) (en ۾). An Ethnographical Hand-book for the N.-W. Provinces and Oudh. North-Western provinces and Oudh government Press. p. 144. https://books.google.com/books?id=tCc-AAAAYAAJ&dq=firoz+shah+tughlaq+mother&pg=PA144. Retrieved 14 March 2023. 
  58. ↑ (en ۾) Proceedings - Punjab History Conference. Publication Bureau, Punjab University. 1966. p. 82. https://books.google.com/books?id=WhFDAAAAYAAJ&q=bibi+naila+punjabi. Retrieved 14 March 2023. 
  59. ↑ Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004) (en ۾). A History of India. Psychology Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-415-32919-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=TPVq3ykHyH4C&dq=firoz+shah+orissa&pg=PA184. Retrieved 14 March 2023. 
  60. ↑ Haque, Mohammed Anwarul (1980) (en ۾). Muslim Administration in Orissa, 1568-1751 A.D.. Punthi Pustak. p. 20. https://books.google.com/books?id=Co8eAAAAMAAJ&q=firoz+shah+cuttack. Retrieved 14 March 2023. 
  61. ↑ Jauhri, R. C. (1990) (en ۾). Firoz Tughluq, 1351-1388 A.D.. ABS Publications. p. 74. ISBN 978-81-7072-029-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=ToRHAAAAMAAJ&q=firoz+shah+tughluq+kangra. Retrieved 14 March 2023. 
  62. ↑ Hutchison, John; Vogel, Jean Philippe (1994) (en ۾). History of the Panjab Hill States. Asian Educational Services. p. 221. ISBN 978-81-206-0942-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=3btDw4S2FmYC&dq=kailas+pal&pg=PA221. Retrieved 14 March 2023. 
  63. ↑ Richard M. Eaton (2019). India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765. University of California Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0520325128. 
  64. ↑ Jackson 2003103.
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Kumar 2020583.
  66. ↑ Kenneth Pletcher (2010). The History of India. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 132. ISBN 9781615301225. https://books.google.com/books?id=VsujRFvaHI8C&dq=khizr+khan+sind&pg=PA132. Retrieved 19 March 2023. 
  67. ↑ V. D. Mahajan (2007). History of Medieval India. S. Chand. p. 229. ISBN 9788121903646. https://books.google.com/books?id=nMWSQuf4oSIC&dq=khizr+khan+sind&pg=RA1-PA229. Retrieved 19 March 2023. 
  68. ↑ Proceedings:Volume 55. Indian History Congress. 1995. p. 216. https://books.google.com/books?id=OghDAAAAYAAJ&q=It+is+generally+acknowledged+that+Khizr+Khan+continued+to+recognise+Timur+and+his+successors+,+Shah+Rukh+,+as+his+nominal+overlords+.+But+later+on+under+his+succesor+,+Mubarak+Khan+,+this+%27+fiction+%27+of+allegiance+to+the+Timurid+rulers. Retrieved 19 March 2023. 
  69. ↑ Mahajan 2007237.
  70. ↑ Rajasthan [district Gazetteers Bharatpur]. Printed at Government Central Press. 1971. p. 52. https://books.google.com/books?id=F3QbAAAAIAAJ&q=khizr+khan+sindh. Retrieved 19 March 2023. 
  71. ↑ Lal, Kishori Saran (1980) (en ۾). Twilight of the Sultanate: A Political, Social and Cultural History of the Sultanate of Delhi from the Invasion of Timur to the Conquest of Babur 1398-1526. Munshiram Manoharlal. ISBN 978-81-215-0227-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=C-E_SwAACAAJ&q=twilight+of+the+sultanate. Retrieved 9 March 2023. "This considerably depleted Iqbal's strength and encouraged Khizr Khan to collect his forces of Multan, Deopalpur and the Punjab" 
  72. ↑ V. D. Mahajan (2007). History of Medieval India. S. Chand. p. 240. ISBN 978-81-219-0364-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=nMWSQuf4oSIC&dq=sultan+mubarak+shah+timur++caliph&pg=RA1-PA240. Retrieved 19 March 2023. 
  73. ↑ Iqtidar Alam Khan (2008). Historical Dictionary of Medieval India. Scarecrow Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-8108-5503-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=pzZFUcDpDzsC&dq=sultan+mubarak+shah&pg=PA103. Retrieved 19 March 2023. 
  74. ↑ Lal, Kishori Saran (1980) (en ۾). Twilight of the Sultanate: A Political, Social and Cultural History of the Sultanate of Delhi from the Invasion of Timur to the Conquest of Babur 1398-1526. Munshiram Manoharlal. ISBN 978-81-215-0227-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=C-E_SwAACAAJ&q=twilight+of+the+sultanate. Retrieved 9 March 2023. "Hoshang tried his luck against Sultan of Delhi but he was beaten back by Mubarak Shah Saiyyad to whom he had to pay a handsome tribute" 
  75. ↑ Lal, Kishori Saran (1980) (en ۾). Twilight of the Sultanate: A Political, Social and Cultural History of the Sultanate of Delhi from the Invasion of Timur to the Conquest of Babur 1398-1526. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 109. ISBN 978-81-215-0227-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=C-E_SwAACAAJ&q=twilight+of+the+sultanate. Retrieved 9 March 2023. 
  76. ↑ Mahajan 2007244.
  77. ↑ Ahmed, Iftikhar (1984). "Territorial Distribution of Jatt Castes in Punjab c. 1595 – c. 1881". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress (Indian History Congress) 45: 429, 432. ISSN 2249-1937. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44140224. Retrieved 28 July 2022. 
  78. ↑ Mubārak, A.F.; Blochmann, H. (1891). The Ain I Akbari. Bibliotheca Indica. Asiatic Society of Bengal. p. 321. https://books.google.com/books?id=L8IXAAAAYAAJ. Retrieved 28 July 2022. 
  79. ↑ Lambrick, H. T. (1975). Sind : a general introduction. Hyderabad: Sindhi Adabi Board. p. 212. ISBN 0-19-577220-2. OCLC 2404471. 
  80. ↑ Roseberry, J.R. (1987). Imperial Rule in Punjab: The Conquest and Administration of Multan, 1818–1881. Manohar. p. 177. ISBN 978-81-85054-28-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=iAMNAAAAIAAJ. Retrieved 28 July 2022. 
  81. ↑ N. A. Baloch; A. Q. Rafiqi (1998). "Chapter 15. The Regions Of Sind, Baluchistan, Multan And Kashmir: The Historical, Social And Economic Setting". History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Age of Achievement, 750 AD to the End of the 15th Century. UNESCO. p. 305. ISBN 978-92-3-103467-1. https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/default/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_IVa%20silk%20road_the%20regions%20of%20sind%2C%20baluchistan%2C%20multan%20and%20kashmir.pdf. Retrieved 22 January 2023. 
  82. ↑ Journal of Central Asia. Centre for the Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia, Quaid-i-Azam University. 1992. p. 84. https://books.google.com/books?id=ml5xAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 2022-07-30. "Sadullah Khan was the son of Amir Bakhsh a cultivator of Chiniot . He belongs to Jat family. He was born on Thursday, the 10th Safar 1000 A.H./1591 A.C." 
  83. ↑ Quddus, S.A. (1992). Punjab, the Land of Beauty, Love, and Mysticism. Royal Book Company. p. 402. ISBN 978-969-407-130-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=4y9zAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 2022-07-29. 
  84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 Siddiqui, Shabbir A. (1986). "Relations Between Dara Shukoh and Sa'adullah Khan". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 47: 273–276. ISSN 2249-1937. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141552. Retrieved 11 August 2022. 
  85. ↑ Koch, Ebba (2006). The complete Taj Mahal : and the riverfront gardens of Agra. Richard André. Barraud. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-500-34209-1. OCLC 69022179. 
  86. ↑ Chhabra, G.S. (2005) (en ۾). Advance Study in the History of Modern India (Volume-1: 1707–1803). Lotus Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-81-89093-06-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=UkDi6rVbckoC&dq=adina+beg+punjab&pg=PA38. 
  87. ↑ سانچو:Cite Banglapedia
  88. ↑ 88.0 88.1 88.2 Metcalf, Barbara Daly (1984-01-01) (en ۾). Moral Conduct and Authority: The Place of Adab in South Asian Islam. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04660-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=Y5-vzVq8hdkC&q=pakpattan&pg=PA349. 
  89. ↑ Gilmartin, David (2020-04-14) (en ۾). Blood and Water: The Indus River Basin in Modern History. Univ of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-35553-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=GfXLDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93. 
  90. ↑ Punjab Government (1883). Gazetteer Of The Jhang District. http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.105607. 
  91. ↑ Punjab Government (1883). Gazetteer Of The Jhang District. http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.105607. 
  92. ↑ Punjab Government (1883). Gazetteer Of The Jhang District. http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.105607. 
  93. ↑ Yasmin, Robina (2022) (en ۾). Muslims Under Sikh Rule in the Nineteenth Century: Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Religious Tolerance. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-0-7556-4035-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=IRsCzwEACAAJ. 
  94. ↑ "Ranjit Singh: A Secular Sikh Sovereign by K.S. Duggal. (Date:1989. ISBN 8170172446)", Exoticindiaart.com, 3 September 2015, اصل کان 17 June 2008 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 09 آگسٽ 2009۔ 
  95. ↑ سانچو:Cite EB1911
  96. ↑ Grewal, J. S. (1990). The Sikhs of the Punjab, Chapter 6: The Sikh empire (1799–1849). The New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-63764-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=2_nryFANsoYC. Retrieved 29 October 2019. 
  97. ↑ Amarinder Singh's The Last Sunset: The Rise and Fall of the Lahore Durbar
  98. ↑ Grewal, J. S. (1998). "The Sikh empire (1799–1849) - Chapter 6". The Sikhs of the Punjab. The New Cambridge History of India (Revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 126–128. ISBN 0-521-63764-3. 
  99. ↑ حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named hibb 1980
  100. ↑ "Pakistan Geotagging: Partition of Punjab in 1947", 3 October 2014, اصل کان 8 February 2016 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 11 February 2016۔ . Daily Times (10 May 2012). Retrieved 12 July 2013.
  101. ↑ Talbot, Ian (2009). "Partition of India: The Human Dimension". Cultural and Social History 6 (4): 403–410. doi:10.2752/147800409X466254. ISSN 1478-0038. "The number of casualties remains a matter of dispute, with figures being claimed that range from 200,000 to 2 million victims.". 
  102. ↑ D'Costa, Bina (2011). Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia. Routledge. p. 53. ISBN 978-0415565660. 
  103. ↑ Butalia, Urvashi (2000). The Other Side of Silence: Voices From the Partition of India. Duke University Press. https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/b/butalia-silence.html. Retrieved 1 September 2021. 
  104. ↑ Sikand, Yoginder (2004). Muslims in India Since 1947: Islamic Perspectives on Inter-Faith Relations. Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 978-1134378258. 
  105. ↑ Dyson 2018188–189.
  1. ↑ حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named 2011&2017Census
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