مواد ڏانھن هلو

ڪانسي

ڳنڍڻن کي سنواريو
کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
(ڪٽ کان چوريل)
سلجھائپ صفحن جي لاءِ معاونت نظر ھيٺ مضمون ڌاتي مصرع تي آهي. ٻين استعمالن جي لاءِ ڪانسي (سلجھائپ) ڏسو.
تاريخ ۾ ڪانسي جي فن پارن جا مختلف مثال

ڪانسي (Bronze) عام بولي ۾ "ڪٽ" به چوڻ ٿا، ٽامي ۽ ٽين (Tin) جو هڪ مصرع آهي، جيڪو بنيادي طور تي %87.5 ٽامي ۽ %12.5 ٽين تي مشتمل هوندو آهي ۽ اڪثر ڪري هن ۾ ٻيا ڌاتو، جهڙوڪ، ايلومينيم، مينگنيز، نڪل يا زنڪ جي اضافي ملاوٽ ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن غير ڌاتو، جهڙوڪ فاسفورس يا ميٽيلائڊ، جهڙوڪ آرسينڪ يا سليڪون جي اضافي ملاوٽ به ڪئي ويندي اهي. هي اضافو مصرن جي هڪ سلسلو ٺاهي ٿو، جنهن مان ڪجهه صرف ٽامي کان سخت آهن يا ٻيون مفيد خاصيتون، جهڙوڪ طاقت، لچڪ يا مشيني صلاحيت رکڻ ٿا.

آثار قديمه جو دور جنهن دوران ڪانسي/ڪٽ وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ۾ سڀ کان سخت ڌاتو هو، ان کي ڪانسي جو دور جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. اولهائين يوريشيا ۾ ڪانسي جي دور جي شروعات روايتي طور تي لڳ ڀڳ 3500 قبل مسيح ۾ ٿي ۽ چين ۾ 2000 قبل مسيح جي شروعات تائين، [1] ٻين هنڌن تي اهو بتدريج علائقن ۾ پکڙجي ويو. ڪانسي جي دور کان پوءِ لوهه جو دور آيو. جيڪو تقريباً 1300 قبل مسيح شروع ٿيو ۽ تقريباً 500 قبل مسيح تائين يوريشيا جي اڪثر حصي تائين پهتو.

جيتوڻيڪ ڪانسي جديد دور جي ڀيٽ ۾ تمام گهڻو استعمال ٿيندو رهيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته تاريخي آرٽ ورڪ اڪثر ڪري ٻن مختلف ڌاتوئي ترڪيب جي ڪانسي ۽ پيتل (ٽامي ۽ زنڪ جي مصر) مان ٺهيل هئا، جديد عجائب گھر ۽ پراڻن آرٽ ورڪ جي علمي وضاحتن ۾ انفرادي مصرع، ڪانسي جي نالن جي بدران عام اصطلاح "ٽامي جو مصر" استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي، جئين ته ڊيٽابيس کي درست رکيو وڃي.[2]

هيومووو (后母戊鼎) ڊنگ؛ سڀ کان ڳرو چيني رسمن وارو ڪانسي جو ٿان، جيڪو 1300 کان 1046 ق.م جو آهي. اهو چين جي نيشنل ميوزيم، بيجنگ ۾ نمائش لاءِ رکيو ويو آهي. هن ڊنگ جو نالو ڪانسي جي اندروني ڀت تي لکيل لکت تي ٻڌل آهي. جنهن تي هيومووو (Hòumǔwù) لکيل آهي، جن جو معنيٰ "راڻي ماءُ وو" آهي.

تاريخ

[سنواريو]
جديد جرمني ۾ ڪانسي جي دور جا ڪانسي جا مليل ڪُهاڙا. هي ان دور جو سڀ کان عام اوزار هو ۽ اهو پڻ لڳي ٿو ته قيمتي شين جي ذخيري طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو هو.
جادوئي نشانين ۽ لکتن سان رومن ڪانسي جا کيل، ٽئين-چوٿين صدي عيسوي

ڪانسي جي دريافت ماڻهن کي ڌاتو جون شيون ٺاهڻ جي قابل بڻايو جيڪي اڳ ۾ ممڪن کان وڌيڪ سخت ۽ پائيدار هيون.

ڪانسي جي دريافت ماڻهن کي ڌاتو جون شيون ٺاهڻ جي قابل بڻايو، جيڪي اڳئين کان وڌيڪ سخت ۽ پائيدار هيون. ڪانسي جا اوزار، هٿيار ۽ تعميراتي مواد جهڙوڪ آرائشي ٽائل سخت هيون ۽ انهن جي پٿر ۽ ٽامي جي دور (chalcolithc) جي اڳوڻن کان وڌيڪ پائيدار هيون.

تاريخ جو پهريون ٽين ۽ ٽامي جي مصرع جو نمونو 4650 قبل مسيح جو پلوچنڪ، سربيا ۾ هڪ وِنڪا (Vanca) ثقافتي ماڳ ۾ موجود آهي ۽ اهو يقين ڪيو ويو آهي ته قدرتي ٽين-ٽامي جي معدنيات، اسٽينائيٽ مان ڳايو ويو هو. ٻيا ابتدائي مثال مصر، سوسا، ايران ۽ چين، لوريستان، ايران، ٽيپي سيالڪ، ايران، منديگاڪ (افغانستان) ۽ ميسوپوٽيميا، عراق ۾ چوٿين صدي قبل مسيح جي آخر تائين جا آهن.[3][4]

ٽامي جا آرسينڪ مصرع، قدرتي طور تي يا مصنوعي طور تي انهن ڌاتن جي مليل معدنيات مان، آرسينڪ ٽامي جا مصرع ٺاهيندا آهن، جيڪا هڪ چاندي جي رنگ جي ڌاتو جي نتيجي ۾ مليا آهن، ساڳئي طرح وڌندڙ طاقت، گهٽ پگھلڻ واري نقطي ۽ ٽامي جي ڀيٽ ۾ اساني سان ڪم ڪيو سگهجي ٿو.[5][6] قديم ترين ڄاتل سڃاتل آرسينڪ-ٽامي جا مصرع جا نمونا يوهي ڪلچر (دور پنجون 3800-3400 ق.م.) ماڳ مان، ايراني پليٽو تي طلائي ابليس تي ۽ مقامي آرسينڪ ٽامي ۽ ٽامي-آرسينائيڊ، جهڙوڪ الگوڊونائيٽ ۽ ڊوميڪائيٽ مان ڳاريا ويا هئا.[3][7][6]

سانچو:Vanchor was superior to arsenic copper in that the alloying process could be more easily controlled, and the resulting alloy was stronger and easier to cast. Also, unlike those of arsenic, metallic tin and the fumes from tin refining are not toxic.

Tin became the major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BCE.[8] Ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together (exceptions include Cornwall in the United Kingdom, one ancient site in Thailand and one in Iran), so serious bronze work has always involved trade with other regions. Tin sources and trade in ancient times had a major influence on the development of cultures. In Europe, a major source of tin was the British deposits of ore in Cornwall, which were traded as far as Phoenicia in the eastern Mediterranean. In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artifacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented a store of value and an indicator of social status. In Europe, large hoards of bronze tools, typically socketed axes (illustrated above), are found, which mostly show no signs of wear. With Chinese ritual bronzes, which are documented in the inscriptions they carry and from other sources, the case is clear. These were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings.

An analysis of 324 metallic finds of the Indus Valley Civilisation (2600–1900 BCE), in the 1990s, found 67 (20%) to have some tin content, to be considered Bronze artefacts, with 26 (8%) of the artefacts having a tin content in excess of 10%, permitting casting; the source of the tin is unknown, but has been speculated to be from Bokhara or Samarkand, in Uzbekistan.[9]

Transition to iron

[سنواريو]

Though bronze, whose Vickers hardness is 60–258, is generally harder than wrought iron, with a hardness of 30–80,[10] the Bronze Age gave way to the Iron Age after a serious disruption of the tin trade: the population migrations of around 1200–1100 BCE reduced the shipment of tin around the Mediterranean and from Britain, limiting supplies and raising prices.[11] As the art of working in iron improved, iron became cheaper and improved in quality. As later cultures advanced from hand-wrought iron to machine-forged iron (typically made with trip hammers powered by water), blacksmiths also learned how to make steel, which is stronger and harder than bronze and holds a sharper edge longer.[12] Bronze was still used during the Iron Age and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day.

ترڪيب

[سنواريو]
ڪانسي جي گھنٽي هڪ نظر ايندڙ ڪرسٽل جهڙي ڍانچي سان گڏ

ڪيترائي مختلف ڪانسي جا مصرع آهن، پر عام طور تي جديد ڪانسي جي مصرعن ۾ لڳ ڀڳ %88 ٽامو ۽ %12 ٽين هوندو آهي. وانچور (Vanchor) ۾ ٽامي ۾ ٽين جي الفا سولڊ حل شامل آهي.[13] %4 کان %5 ٽين جا الفا-ڪانسي جا مصرع سڪا، اسپرنگ، ٽربائن ۽ بليڊ ٺاهڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيا ويندا آهن. تاريخي "ڪانسي جا مصرع" ساخت ۾ تمام گهڻو متغير آهن، ڇاڪاڻ ته گھڻا ڌاتوڪار شايد هٿ ۾ جيڪو به اسڪريپ هوندو هو استعمال ڪندا هئا. 12هين صدي جي انگريزي گلوسٽر ڪينڊل اسٽڪ جو ڌاتو ڪانسي آهي جنهن ۾ ٽامي جست، ٽين، شيهي، نڪل، لوهه، اينٽيموني، آرسينڪ ۽ چاندي جي غير معمولي طور تي وڏي مقدار بنياد ۾ %22.5٪ ۽ ڪينڊل جي هيٺان بيس ۾ %5.76 جي وچ ۾ جو مصرع آھي. هن مصرع جي تناسب مان ظاهر ٿئي ٿو ته شمع دان پراڻي سڪن جي هڪ عمودي قطار مان ٺاهيو ويو هو. 13هين صدي جي بينن ڪانسي حقيقت ۾ پيتل آهن، ۽ سينٽ بارٿولوميو چرچ ۾ 12هين صدي جي رومنيڪي بپتسما واري ڦوهاري کي ڪڏهن ڪڏهن ڪانسي ۽ ڪڏهن ڪڏهن پيتل جي طور تي بيان ڪيو ويندو آهي.

ڪانسي جي دور ۾، ڪانسي جا ٻه روپ عام طور تي استعمال ڪيا ويندا هئا؛ "ڪلاسڪ ڪانسي"، لڳ ڀڳ %10ٽين ڪاسٽنگ ۾ استعمال ڪيو ويندو هو، "نرم ڪانسي"، لڳ ڀڳ %6 ٽين چادرون ٺاهڻ لاءِ انگوٽ مان ٺاهيو ويندو هو. تيز هٿيار بنيادي طور تي کلاسڪ ڪانسي مان ٺاهيا ويندا هئا، جڏهن ته هيلمٽ ۽ ٻيا هٿيار نرم برونز مان ٺاهيا ويندا هئا.

Modern سانچو:Vanchor (90% copper and 10% zinc) and architectural bronze (57% copper, 3% lead, 40% zinc) are more properly regarded as brass alloys because they contain zinc as the main alloying ingredient. They are commonly used in architectural applications.[14][15] Plastic bronze contains a significant quantity of lead, which makes for improved plasticity,[16] and may have been used by the ancient Greeks in ship construction.[17] سانچو:Vanchor has a composition of Si: 2.80–3.80%, Mn: 0.50–1.30%, Fe: 0.80% max., Zn: 1.50% max., Pb: 0.05% max., Cu: balance.[18] Other bronze alloys include aluminium bronze, phosphor bronze, manganese bronze, bell metal, arsenical bronze, speculum metal, bismuth bronze, and cymbal alloys.

خصوصيتون

[سنواريو]

ٽامي تي ٻڌل مصرع، فولاد يا لوهه جي ڀيٽ ۾ گهٽ گرمي پد پگھري ويندا آهن ۽ انهن جي جزو ڌاتن کان وڌيڪ آساني سان ٺاهيا سگھجن ٿا. اها عام طور تي فولاد کان لڳ ڀڳ 10 سيڪڙو وڌيڪ گهاٽا هوندا آهن، پر ايلومينيم يا سليڪون استعمال ڪندڙ مصرع ٿورو گهٽ گهاٽا ٿي سگهن ٿا. برونز اڪثر فولاد کان بهتر گرمي ۽ بجلي چالڪائي جي صلاحيت ٿا.

ڪانسي جا مصرع عام طور تي تار وارا مصرع آهن، ۽ اھا خام لوهه جي ڀيٽ ۾ تمام گهٽ ڀُرڻ وارا آهن. ٽامي ۽ ان جي مصرعن ۾ استعمال جي هڪ وڏي قسم آهي، جيڪي انهن جي ورسٽائل طبعي، ميڪاني ۽ ڪيميائي خاصيتن کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا. ڪجهه عام مثال خالص ٽامي جي اعلي برقي چالکائي، بيئرنگ برونز جي گهٽ رگڙ خاصيتون، جنهن ۾ 6 کان 8 سيڪڙو جو اعلي شيهي جو مواد آهي. گهنٽي ٺاهڻ وارو ڪٽ (%20 ٽين ۽ %80 ٽامو) جي گونج ڪندڙ خاصيتون ۽ ڪيترن ئي برونز مصرعن جي سامونڊي پاڻي پاران سنکنرن جي مزاحمت آهن.

برونز جو پگھلڻ جو نقطو تقريباً °950 سينٽي گريڊ آهي، پر اها مصرع جي جزون جي تناسب تي منحصر ڪري ٿو. ڪٽ عام طور تي غير مقناطيسي هوندا آهن، پر لوهه يا نڪل تي مشتمل ڪجهه مصرعن ۾ مقناطيسي خاصيتون ٿي سگهن ٿيون. ڪٽ عام طور تي صرف سطحي طور تي آڪسائيڊ ٿئي ٿو ۽ هڪ ڀيرو ڪاپر آڪسائيڊ (آخرڪار ڪاپر ڪاربونيٽ بڻجي ويندو آهي) پرت ٺهي ويندي آهي ۽ هيٺيون ڌاتو وڌيڪ زنگ کان محفوظ رهندو آهي. اها هيلينسٽڪ دور جي مجسمن تي ڏسي سگهجي ٿو. ڪاپر ڪلورائيڊ (CuCl4) جو سنکرن تمام مصرع کي زنگ ۾ تبديل ڪري مڪمل طور ختم ڪري ڇڏي ٿو.

استعمال

[سنواريو]
Bronze weight with an inscribed imperial order, Qin dynasty
Industrial products of the Bunting Brass and Bronze Company, 1912

Bronze, or bronze-like alloys and mixtures, were used for coins over a longer period. Bronze was especially suitable for use in boat and ship fittings prior to the wide employment of stainless steel owing to its combination of toughness and resistance to salt water corrosion. Bronze is still commonly used in ship propellers and submerged bearings. In the 20th century, silicon was introduced as the primary alloying element, creating an alloy with wide application in industry and the major form used in contemporary statuary. Sculptors may prefer silicon bronze because of the ready availability of silicon bronze brazing rod, which allows color-matched repair of defects in castings. Aluminium is also used for the structural metal aluminium bronze.

Unlike steel, bronze struck against a hard surface will not generate sparks, so it (along with beryllium copper) is used to make hammers, mallets, wrenches and other durable tools to be used in explosive atmospheres or in the presence of flammable vapors. Bronze is used to make bronze wool for woodworking applications where steel wool would discolor oak. Phosphor bronze is used for ships' propellers, musical instruments, and electrical contacts.[19]

Bronze parts are tough and typically used for bearings, clips, electrical connectors and springs. Bronze also has low friction against dissimilar metals, making it important for cannons prior to modern tolerancing, where iron cannonballs would otherwise stick in the barrel.[20]

عمارتي ڪٽ

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو Seagram Building ۽ Roman Bronze Works
Refer to caption
The Seagram Building viewed from across Park Avenue at 52nd Street

The Seagram Building on New York City's Park Avenue is the "iconic glass box sheathed in bronze, designed by Mies van der Rohe."[21] The Seagram Building was the first time that an entire building was sheathed in bronze.[22] The General Bronze Corporation fabricated 3,200,000 pounds (1,600 tons) of bronze at its plant in Garden City, New York.[22] The Seagram Building is a 38-story, 516-foot bronze-and-topaz-tinted glass building.[21] The building looks like a "squarish 38-story tower clad in a restrained curtain wall of metal and glass."[23] "Bronze was selected because of its color, both before and after aging, its corrosion resistance, and its extrusion properties.[22][21] In 1958, it was not only the most expensive building of its time — $36 million — but it was the first building in the world with floor-to-ceiling glass walls.[21] Mies van der Rohe achieved the crisp edges that were custom-made with specific detailing by General Bronze[22] and "even the screws that hold in the fixed glass-plate windows were made of brass."[21]

سڪا ۽ تمغا

[سنواريو]
Medal of the Emperor John VIII Palaiologos during his visit to Florence, by Pisanello (1438). The legend reads, in Greek: "John the Palaiologos, basileus and autokrator of the Romans".

Bronze has also been used in coins; most "copper" coins are actually bronze, with about 4 percent tin and 1 percent zinc.[24]

As with coins, bronze has been used in the manufacture of various types of medals for centuries, and "bronze medals" are known in contemporary times for being awarded for third place in sporting competitions and other events. The term is now often used for third place even when no actual bronze medal is awarded. The usage in part arose from the trio of gold, silver and bronze to represent the first three Ages of Man in Greek mythology: the Golden Age, when men lived among the gods; the Silver age, where youth lasted a hundred years; and the Bronze Age, the era of heroes. It was first adopted for a sports event at the 1904 Summer Olympics. At the 1896 event, silver was awarded to winners and bronze to runners-up, while at 1900 other prizes were given rather than medals.

Bronze is the normal material for the related form of the plaquette, normally a rectangular work of art with a scene in relief, for a collectors' market.

Bronze is also associated with eighth wedding anniversaries.

Fountains and doors

[سنواريو]
US Supreme Court Building's massive bronze doors by Gilbert Donnelly Sr. and his son John Donnelly Jr.

The largest and most ornate bronze fountain known to be cast in the world was by the Roman Bronze Works and General Bronze Corporation in 1952. The material used for the fountain, known as statuary bronze, is a quaternary alloy made of copper, zinc, tin, and lead, and traditionally golden brown in color. This was made for the Andrew W. Mellon Memorial Fountain in Federal Triangle in Washington, DC.[25] Another example of the massive, ornate design projects of bronze, and attributed to General Bronze/Roman Bronze Works were the massive bronze doors to the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, DC.[26]

Lamps

[سنواريو]

Tiffany Glass Studios, made famous by Louis C. Tiffany commonly referred to his product as favrile glass or "Tiffany glass", and used bronze in their artisan work for his Tiffany lamps.[27][28][29][30]

Tiffany table lamp with bronze

Mechanical bearings and springs

[سنواريو]

It is still widely used today for springs, bearings, bushings, automobile transmission pilot bearings, and similar fittings, and is particularly common in the bearings of small electric motors. Phosphor bronze is particularly suited to precision-grade bearings and springs. It is also used in guitar and piano strings. Bearings are often made of bronze for its friction properties. It can be impregnated with oil to make the proprietary Oilite and similar material for bearings. Aluminium bronze is hard and wear-resistant, and is used for bearings and machine tool ways.[31] The Doehler Die Casting Co. of Toledo, Ohio were known for the production of Brastil, a high tensile corrosion resistant bronze alloy.[32][33]

Mirrors

[سنواريو]
Decorated back of a Celtic bronze mirror, 120–80 BCE, St Keverne, England
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Bronze mirror

Before it became possible to produce glass with acceptably flat surfaces, bronze was a standard material for mirrors. Bronze was used for this purpose in many parts of the world, probably based on independent discoveries. Bronze mirrors survive from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (2040–1750 BCE), and China from at least ت. 550 BCE. In Europe, the Etruscans were making bronze mirrors in the sixth century BCE, and Greek and Roman mirrors followed the same pattern. Although other materials such as speculum metal had come into use, and Western glass mirrors had largely taken over, bronze mirrors were still being made in Japan and elsewhere in the eighteenth century, and are still made on a small scale in Kerala, India.

Musical instruments

[سنواريو]
Chinese bells:Bianzhong of Marquis Yi of Zeng, Spring and Autumn period (476–221 BCE)
Singing bowls from the 16th to 18th centuries. Annealed bronze continues to be made in the Himalayas

Bronze is the preferred metal for bells in the form of a high tin bronze alloy known as bell metal, which is typically about 23% tin.

Nearly all professional cymbals are made from bronze, which gives a desirable balance of durability and timbre. Several types of bronze are used, commonly B20 bronze, which is roughly 20% tin, 80% copper, with traces of silver, or the tougher B8 bronze made from 8% tin and 92% copper. As the tin content in a bell or cymbal rises, the timbre drops.[34]

Bronze is also used for the windings of steel and nylon strings of various stringed instruments such as the double bass, piano, harpsichord, and guitar. Bronze strings are commonly reserved on pianoforte for the lower pitch tones, as they possess a superior sustain quality to that of high-tensile steel.[35]

Bronzes of various metallurgical properties are widely used in struck idiophones around the world, notably bells, singing bowls, gongs, cymbals, and other idiophones from Asia. Examples include Tibetan singing bowls, temple bells of many sizes and shapes, Javanese gamelan, and other bronze musical instruments. The earliest bronze archeological finds in Indonesia date from 1–2 BCE, including flat plates probably suspended and struck by a wooden or bone mallet.[35][36] Ancient bronze drums from Thailand and Vietnam date back 2,000 years. Bronze bells from Thailand and Cambodia date back to 3600 BCE.

Some companies are now making saxophones from phosphor bronze (3.5 to 10% tin and up to 1% phosphorus content).[37] Bell bronze/B20 is used to make the tone rings of many professional model banjos.[38] The tone ring is a heavy (usually 3 lb (1.4 kg)[اوزا تبديل: invalid option]) folded or arched metal ring attached to a thick wood rim, over which a skin, or most often, a plastic membrane (or head) is stretched – it is the bell bronze that gives the banjo a crisp powerful lower register and clear bell-like treble register.[39]

Sculptures

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اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Bronze sculpture

Bronze is widely used for casting bronze sculptures. Common bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling the finest details of a mould. Then, as the bronze cools, it shrinks a little, making it easier to separate from the mould.[40] The Assyrian king Sennacherib (704–681 BCE) claims to have been the first to cast monumental bronze statues (of up to 30 tonnes) using two-part moulds instead of the lost-wax method.[41]

Bronze statues were regarded as the highest form of sculpture in Ancient Greek art, though survivals are few, as bronze objects were frequently melted down for reuse throughout the Classical period. Many of the most famous Greek bronze sculptures are known through Roman copies in marble, which were more likely to survive.

In India, bronze sculptures from the Kushana (Chausa hoard) and Gupta periods (Brahma from Mirpur-Khas, Akota Hoard, Sultanganj Buddha) and later periods (Hansi Hoard) have been found.[42] Indian Hindu artisans from the period of the Chola empire in Tamil Nadu used bronze to create intricate statues via the lost-wax casting method with ornate detailing depicting the deities of Hinduism. The art form survives to this day, with many silpis, craftsmen, working in the areas of Swamimalai and Chennai.

In antiquity other cultures also produced works of high art using bronze. For example, in Europe, Grecian bronzes typically of figures from Greek mythology; in east Asia, Chinese ritual bronzes of the Shang and Zhou dynasty—more often ceremonial vessels but including some figurine examples. Bronze continues into modern times as one of the materials of choice for monumental statuary.

The medieval and early-modern Castings of the Benin Empire (13–19th century CE), that are often labelled Bronzes, are technically cast, from an often leaded, Brass alloy.[43][44]

طب

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ڪٽ (ٻيا نالا عربي طاليفون، فارسي روئين)، هيڊي رنگ تي ڌاتوءَ جو قسم آهي جو ٻہ يا ٽي ڌاتن کي گڏ ڪري ٺاهيو ويندو آھي، مختلف بيمارين جي علاج لاء استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. لقوي جي علاج لاء هن مان آرسي جوڙائي استعمال ڪرائي ويندي آھي جئين لقوي وارو اها آرسي ڏسندو رهندو ته منھن جي ٽيڏاڻ ڇڏي ويندي. هن کي ساڙي ٻورو ڪري ڦٽن ۽ ناسورن تي مرهم ڪري رکجي تہ اهي ڇٽي ويندا اهن.[45]

پڻ ڏسو

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حوالا

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  1. ↑ Thorp, Robert L. (2013). China in the Early Bronze Age: Shang Civilization. University of Pennsylvania Press.سانچو:Page needed
  2. ↑ Thorp, Robert L. (2013). China in the Early Bronze Age: Shang Civilization. University of Pennsylvania Press.سانچو:Page needed
  3. 1 2 Thornton, C.; Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C.; Liezers, M.; Young, S.M.M. (2002). "On pins and needles: tracing the evolution of copper-based alloying at Tepe Yahya, Iran, via ICP-MS analysis of Common-place items.". Journal of Archaeological Science 29 (12): 1451–60. doi:10.1006/jasc.2002.0809. Bibcode: 2002JArSc..29.1451T.
  4. ↑ Potts, Daniel T. (1997). Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations. London: Athlone Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-48593-001-6.
  5. ↑ Tylecote, R.F. (1992). A History of Metallurgy, Second Edition. London: Maney Publishing, for the Institute of Materials. ISBN 978-1-902653-79-2. http://m.friendfeed-media.com/450c6f3cdc92be9e19ecd285bd7f809a9ae1d4d5.
  6. 1 2 De Ryck, I.; Adriaens, A.; Adams, F. (2005-07-01). "An overview of Mesopotamian bronze metallurgy during the 3rd millennium BC". Journal of Cultural Heritage 6 (3): 261–268. doi:10.1016/j.culher.2005.04.002. ISSN 1296-2074. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1296207405000610.
  7. ↑ "Expedition Magazine | The Early Bronze Age of Iran as Seen from Tepe Yahya", Expedition Magazine (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), حاصل ڪيل 24 اپريل 2024۔
  8. ↑ Kaufman, Brett (2 October 2012). "Metallurgy and Ecological Change in the Ancient Near East". Backdirt: Annual Review 2011: 86. https://www.academia.edu/download/28810743/Kaufman_Metallurgy_and_Ecological_Change_in_the_Ancient_Near_East__Backdirt_2011.pdf.
  9. ↑ Kochhar, Naresh (January 1999). "A new source of primary Tin ore in the Indus civilization". South Asian Studies 15: 115–118. doi:10.1080/02666030.1999.9628571. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327395563.
  10. ↑ Smithells Metals Reference Book, 8th Edition, ch. 22
  11. ↑ Cramer, Clayton E. (10 December 1995), "What Caused The Iron Age?", claytoncramer.com, اصل کان 28 ڊسمبر 2010 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل۔
  12. ↑ Sherby, O. D.; Wadsworth, J. (2000), "Ancient Blacksmiths, the Iron Age, Damascus Steels, and Modern Metallurgy", Thermec 2000, Las Vegas, Nevada: U.S. Department of Commerce, اصل کان 26 جون 2007 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 24 August 2022۔
  13. ↑ Knapp, Brian. (1996) Copper, Silver and Gold. Reed Library, Australia.
  14. ↑ "Copper alloys", اصل کان 11 September 2013 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 14 September 2014۔
  15. ↑ "CDA UNS Standard Designations for Wrought and Cast Copper and Copper Alloys: Introduction", اصل کان 24 September 2013 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 14 September 2014۔
  16. ↑ "plastic bronze", The Free Encyclopedia, حاصل ڪيل 24 August 2022۔
  17. ↑ Adams, Jonathan R. (2012). "The Belgammel Ram, a Hellenistic-Roman BronzeProembolionFound off the Coast of Libya: test analysis of function, date and metallurgy, with a digital reference archive". International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 42 (1): 60–75. doi:10.1111/1095-9270.12001. http://www.don-simmonds.co.uk/oliver/ijna12001.pdf.
  18. ↑ ASTM B124 / B124M – 15. ASTM International. 2015.
  19. ↑ "Resources: Standards & Properties – Copper & Copper Alloy Microstructures: Phosphor Bronze", Copper Development Association Inc., اصل کان 08 ڊسمبر 2015 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 24 August 2022۔
  20. ↑ Alavudeen, A.; Venkateshwaran, N.; Winowlin Jappes, J. T. (1 January 2006). A Textbook of Engineering Materials and Metallurgy. Firewall Media. pp. 136–. ISBN 978-81-7008-957-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=WB5RBUQW3rcC&pg=PA136. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 Nash, Eric (1999). Manhattan Skyscrapers (1st ed.). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton Architectural Press. pp. 105–106. ISBN 1-56898-181-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=l3aAA2Di1YkC&q=seagrams. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
  22. 1 2 3 4 Ennis, Thomas. "Building is Designer's Testament". The New York Times (November 10, 1957): pp. 313, 320. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1957/11/10/90853549.pdf?pdf_redirect=true&ip=0. "Seagram Building Marks Apex Of Mies van der Rohe's Career"
  23. ↑ "SEAGRAM'S PLANS PLAZA TOWER IN NEW YORK and Mies van der Rohe designs his first skyscraper office building" (English ۾). Architectural Forum 102 (4): 9. April 1955. https://usmodernist.org/AF/AF-1955-04.pdf. Retrieved 21 December 2023.
  24. ↑ "bronze | alloy", Encyclopædia Britannica (Online ڇاپو), اصل کان 30 جولاءِ 2016 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 21 جولاءِ 2016۔
  25. ↑ "Andrew W. Mellon Memorial Fountain Restored by National Gallery of Art in Honor of 75th Anniversary with a Major Grant from Richard King Mellon Foundation —Monumental Bronze Fountain Operational on March 17—", National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, حاصل ڪيل 23 December 2023, "Andrew W. Mellon Memorial Fountain, situated at the apex of the Federal Triangle complex in downtown Washington, DC"
  26. ↑ "The Bronze Doors", Supreme Court (ٻولي ۾ English), Washington, DC: The Supreme Court, حاصل ڪيل 23 December 2023, ""Out of all of our monumental projects, spread over two lifetimes, the Supreme Court doors are the only work that we ever signed – that's how important they were." – JOHN DONNELLY, JR., Sculptor"
  27. ↑ "Tiffany Studios", The Charles Hosmer Morse Museum of American Art, حاصل ڪيل 17 December 2023۔
  28. ↑ Eidelberg, Martin; McClelland, Nany (2001). Behind the Scenes of Tiffany Glassmaking: the Nash Notebooks (1st ed.). St. Martin's Press. pp. 2–10. ISBN 9780312282653. https://books.google.com/books?id=Id9kQgAACAAJ.
  29. ↑ "A Chronology of Louis C. Tiffany and Tiffany Studios", Tiffany Studios, حاصل ڪيل 17 December 2023۔
  30. ↑ "Roman Bronze Works", Amon Carter Museum of American Art (ٻولي ۾ English), Carter Museum, حاصل ڪيل 23 December 2023۔
  31. ↑ "Resources: Standards & Properties – Copper & Copper Alloy Microstructures: Aluminum Bronzes", Copper Development Association Inc., اصل کان 05 ڊسمبر 2013 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 24 August 2022۔
  32. ↑ "Doehler-Jarvis Company Collection, MSS-202"۔
  33. ↑ Woldman's Engineering Alloys, 9th Edition 1936, American Society for Metals, ISBN 978-0-87170-691-1
  34. ↑ Von Falkenhausen, Lothar (1993). Suspended Music: Chime-Bells in the Culture of Bronze Age China. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-520-07378-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=ve1h53NTNW0C&pg=PA106.
  35. 1 2 McCreight, Tim (1992). Metals technic: a collection of techniques for metalsmiths. Brynmorgen Press. ISBN 0-9615984-3-3.سانچو:Page needed
  36. ↑ LaPlantz, David (1991). Jewelry – Metalwork 1991 Survey: Visions – Concepts – Communication. S. LaPlantz. ISBN 0-942002-05-9.سانچو:Page needed
  37. ↑ "www.sax.co.uk", اصل کان 11 August 2014 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 18 September 2014۔
  38. ↑ Siminoff, Roger H. (2008). Siminoff's Luthiers Glossary. New York: Hal Leonard. p. 13. ISBN 9781423442929.
  39. ↑ "What Is Bronze? | National Bell Festival", www.bells.org, حاصل ڪيل 04 جولاءِ 2024۔
  40. ↑ Savage, George (1968). A Concise History of Bronzes. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc. Publishers. p. 17.
  41. ↑ for a translation of his inscription see the appendix in Dalley, Stephanie (2013). The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an elusive World Wonder traced. OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5.
  42. ↑ Indian bronze masterpieces: the great tradition: specially published for the Festival of India, Asharani Mathur, Sonya Singh, Festival of India, Brijbasi Printers, Dec 1, 1988
  43. ↑ "Recovering the Brilliance of a Benin Bronze", The Metropolitan Museum of Art (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), حاصل ڪيل 14 جون 2025۔
  44. ↑ "Benin Bronzes", MoMAA | Affordable Art Gallery & Lifestyle (ٻولي ۾ en-GB), حاصل ڪيل 14 جون 2025۔
  45. ↑ ڪتاب: فرھنگ جعفري؛ ليکڪ: حڪيم محمد جعفر؛ ايڊيشن: 2007ع؛ پبلشر: سنڌي ادبي بورڊ، ڄامشورو.

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سانچو:Jewellery

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