مواد ڏانھن هلو

ٻيلو

ڳنڍڻن کي سنواريو
کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
سلجھائپ صفحن جي لاءِ معاونت نظر ھيٺ مضمون a community of trees تي آهي. ٻين استعمالن جي لاءِ ٻيلو (سلجھائپ) ڏسو.
ايميزون برساتي ٻيلو (سوليموس نديءَ جي ڪناري سان) هڪ ٽراپيڪل برساتي ٻيلو آهي. هي ٻيلا دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ حياتياتي متنوع ۽ پيداواري ماحولياتي نظام آهن.

ٻيلو (Forest)، وڻن جي گهاٽي برادري جي خاصيت سان، هڪ ماحولياتي نظام آهي.[1]

سڄي دنيا ۾ ٻيلن جون ڪيتريون ئي تعريفون استعمال ڪيون وينديون آهن، جنهن ۾ وڻن جي گھاٽائي، وڻن جي اچائي، زمين جي استعمال، قانوني حيثيت ۽ ماحولياتي ڪم جهڙا عنصر شامل آهن.[2] [3] [4] گڏيل قومن جي خوراڪ ۽ زراعت تنظيم (FAO) ٻيلي جي اها تعريف ڪري ٿو. 

"0.5 هيڪٽرن کان وڌيڪ پکڙيل زمين جنهن ۾ 5 ميٽر کان وڌيڪ اچا وڻ يا وڻ جيڪي انهن حدن تائين پهچي سگهن ٿا ۽ 10 سيڪڙو کان وڌيڪ ڇت جو ڍڪ هجي. ان ۾ اها زمين شامل ناهي جيڪا بنيادي طور تي زرعي يا شهري استعمال هيٺ هجي."[5]

هن تعريف کي استعمال ڪندي، گلوبل فاريسٽ ريسورسز اسيسمينٽ 2020ع ۾ هن نتيجي تي پهتو ته، ٻيلا 4.06 بلين هيڪٽر (10.0 بلين ايڪڙ، 40.6 ملين چورس ڪلوميٽر، 15.7 ملين چورس ميل)، يا 2020 ۾ دنيا جي زميني علائقي جو تقريباً 31 سيڪڙو ڍڪيل هئا.[6]

آبهوا جي خطن جي لحاظ کان عالمي ٻيلن جي ايراضي جو تناسب ۽ ورڇ، 2020[7]

ٻيلا ايراضي جي لحاظ کان ڌرتيء جا سڀ کان وڏا زميني ماحولياتي نظام آهن ۽ سڄي دنيا ۾ ملندا آهن.[8] ٻيلن جي زمين جو 45 سيڪڙو ٽراپيڪل ويڪرائي ڦاڪن ۾ آهي. ٻيلن جو ايندڙ وڏو حصو سب آرڪٽڪ آبهوا ۾ ملي ٿو، ان کان پوءِ معتدل ۽ ذيلي آبهوا زون ۾ آهن.[9]

ٻيلا ڌرتيء جي حياتي دائري (Biome) جي مجموعي بنيادي پيداوار جو 75 سيڪڙو آهن ۽ انهن ۾ زمين جي ٻوٽن جي حياتياتي مايي (Biomass) جو 80 سيڪڙو شامل آهي. خالص بنيادي پيداوار جو اندازو ٽراپيڪل ٻيلن لاءِ هر سال 21.9، معتدل ٻيلن لاءِ 8.1، ۽ بوريل ٻيلن لاءِ 2.6 گيگاٽن بايو ماس آهي.[10]

ٻيلا مختلف ويڪرائي ڦاڪن ۽ بلندين تي ۽ مختلف برسات ۽ بخارات جي منتقلي جي شرح سان واضح طور تي مختلف حياتي جا دائرا ٺاهيندا آهن.[11] انهن حياتي جي دائرن ۾ سب آرڪٽڪ آبهوا ۾ بوريل ٻيلا، خط استوا جي چوڌاري ٽراپيڪل نم ٻيلا ۽ ٽراپيڪل خشڪ ٻيلا ۽ وچين ويڪرائي ڦاڪن تي معتدل ٻيلا شامل آهن. ٻيلا زمين جي انهن علائقن ۾ ٺهن ٿا جتي وڌيڪ برسات پوي ٿي، جڏهن ته خشڪ حالتون سوانا ڏانهن منتقلي پيدا ڪن ٿيون. جڏهن ته، وچولي برسات جي سطح وارن علائقن ۾، ٻيلا تيزيءَ سان سوانا ڏانهن منتقلي ٿيڻ ٿا جڏهن وڻن سان ڍڪيل زمين جو 40 کان 45 سيڪڙو تائين گهٽجي وڃي ٿو.[12] ايميزون برساتي ٻيلن ۾ ڪيل تحقيق ڏيکاري ٿي ته وڻ هڪ علائقي ۾ برسات جي شرح کي تبديل ڪري سگهن ٿا، انهن جي پنن مان پاڻي ڇڏائي سگهن ٿا. وڻ هڪ علائقي ۾ برسات جي شرح کي تبديل ڪري سگهن ٿا. پنھنجن پنن مان پاڻي ڇڏائڻ (موسمي برساتن جي توقع ۾ ته جيئن برسات جي موسم جلد شروع ٿئي. ان ڪري، ايميزون (Amazon) ۾ موسمي برسات، اصل وقت کان ٻه کان ٽي مهينا اڳ شروع ٿي ويندي آهي.[13] [14] ايميزون ۾ ٻيلن جي ڪٽائي ۽ انساني جي ھٿن موسمياتي تبديليون هن عمل ۾ مداخلت ڪرڻ جي صلاحيت رکن ٿيون، جنهن جي ڪري ٻيلا هڪ اهڙي حد تائين پھتي ويندا آهن، جتان انهن جي سوانا ۾ منتقل شروع ٿي ويندي آهي.[15]

ٻيلن جي ڪٽائي ڪيترن ئي ٻيلن جي ماحولياتي نظامن لاء خطرو آهي. ٻيلن جي ڪٽائي تڏهن ٿيندي آهي جڏهن انسان ڪاٺ جي ڪٽائي يا زراعت لاءِ رستو ٺاهڻ لاءِ ٻيلن واري علائقي مان وڻن کي ڪٽي يا ساڙي هٽائي ڇڏيندا آهن. اڄ اڪثر ٻيلن جي ڪٽائي ٽراپيڪل ٻيلن ۾ ٿيندي آهي. هن ٻيلن جي ڪٽائي جو وڏو حصو چار شين؛ ڪاٺ، گوشت، سويا ۽ پام آئل جي پيداوار جي ڪري ٿيندو آهي.[16] گذريل 2,000 سالن کان يورپ ۾ ٻيلن سان ڍڪيل زمين جو علائقو %80 کان گهٽجي %34 ٿي ويو آهي. چين ۽ اوڀر آمريڪا ۾ به ٻيلن جا وڏا علائقا صاف ڪيا ويا آهن،[17] جنهن ۾ صرف %0.1 زمين کي ڇڏيو ويو هو.[18] زمين جي ٻيلن جي ايراضي جو لڳ ڀڳ اڌ (49 سيڪڙو) نسبتاً برقرار آهي، جڏهن ته 9 سيڪڙو ٽڪرن ۾ ملي ٿو جن ۾ گهٽ يا ڪو به رابطو ناهي. ٽراپيڪل برساتي ٻيلا ۽ بوريل مخروطي ٻيلا سڀ کان گهٽ ٽڪرا ٽڪرا آهن، جڏهن ته سب ٽراپيڪل خشڪ ٻيلا ۽ معتدل سامونڊي ٻيلا سڀ کان وڌيڪ ٽڪرا ٽڪرا آهن.

دنيا جي ٻيلن جي ايراضي جو تقريباً %80 ڏهه لک هيڪٽر (25 لک ايڪڙ) کان وڏين ٽڪرين ۾ ملي ٿو. باقي 20 سيڪڙو دنيا جي ٽي ڪروڙ چاليهه لک (34 ملين) کان وڌيڪ ٽڪرين ۾ واقع آهي. وڏي اڪثريت 1,000 هيڪٽر (2,500 ايڪڙ) کان گهٽ سائيز ۾ آهي.[19]

انساني سماج ۽ ٻيلا هڪ ٻئي کي مثبت يا منفي طور تي متاثر ڪري سگهن ٿا.[20] ٻيلا انسانن کي ماحولياتي نظام جون خدمتون مهيا ڪن ٿا ۽ سياحن جي ڪشش جو ڪم ڪن ٿا. ٻيلا ماڻهن جي صحت کي پڻ متاثر ڪري سگهن ٿا. انساني سرگرميون، جن ۾ ٻيلن جي وسيلن جو غير پائيدار استعمال شامل آهي، ٻيلن جي ماحولياتي نظام کي منفي طور تي متاثر ڪري سگهن ٿيون.[21]

تعريفون

[سنواريو]

ٻيلو وڻن جي گهڻائي يا گهاٽائيءِ کي چئبو آهي، جيڪي عام طور موسمي حالتن جي اثر هيٺ پيدا ٿيندا آهن.

اشتقاق

[سنواريو]

ارتقائي تاريخ

[سنواريو]

ماحوليات

[سنواريو]

ايراضي

[سنواريو]
Share of land that is covered by forest

The annual net loss of forest area has decreased since 1990, but the world is not on track to meet the target of the United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests to increase forest area by 3 percent by 2030.[22]

Share of forest area in total land area, top countries (2021)

While deforestation is taking place in some areas, new forests are being established through natural expansion or deliberate efforts in other areas. As a result, the net loss of forest area is less than the rate of deforestation; and it, too, is decreasing: from 7.8 ملين هيڪٽر (19 ملين acre) per year in the 1990s to 4.7 ملين هيڪٽر (12 ملين acre) per year during 2010–2020.[22] In absolute terms, the global forest area decreased by 178 ملين هيڪٽر ([اوزا تبديل: اڻڄاتل يونٽ]) between 1990 and 2020, which is an area about the size of Libya.[22]

سماجي اهميت

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو ٻيلن جو انتظام, ٻيلن جي ڪٽائي ۽ ٻيلن جي تباھي
اتر ڪيليفورنيا جي ريڊ ووڊ ٻيلي ۾ ريڊ ووڊ وڻ، جتي ڪيتري ئي ريڊ ووڊ وڻن جو ڪاٺ جي پيداوار لاءِ ڪٽڻ بدران محفوظ ڪرڻ ۽ ڊگهي عمر لاءِ انتظام ڪيو ويندو آهي
ڪاسٽرو، ٿاسوس تي جهنگلي باهه سبب سڙيل ٻيلو

ماحولياتي نظامن جي مدد

[سنواريو]

ٻيلا ماحولياتي نظام جون مختلف خدمتون مهيا ڪن ٿا جن ۾ شامل آهن:

  • ڪاربن ڊاءِ آڪسائيڊ کي آڪسيجن ۽ بايوماس ۾ تبديل ڪرڻ. هڪ مڪمل ڄميل وڻ هر سال تقريباً 100 ڪلوگرام (220 پائونڊ) خالص آڪسيجن پيدا ڪري ٿو.[23]
  • ڪاربن سنڪ جي طور تي ڪم ڪري ٿو. تنهن ڪري، اهي موسمياتي تبديلي کي گهٽائڻ لاءِ ضروري آهن.[24]
  • آبهوا کي منظم ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ڪرڻ. مثال طور 2017 جي تحقيق ڏيکاري ٿي ته ٻيلا برسات کي جنم ڏين ٿا. جيڪڏهن ٻيلو ڪٽيو وڃي ٿو اهو خشڪي جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿو[25] ۽ ٽراپڪس ۾ ٻاهرين مزدورن جي پيشه ورانه گرمي جي دٻاءُ جو سبب بڻجي سگهي ٿو.[26]
  • پاڻي صاف ڪرڻ
  • ٻوڏ جهڙن قدرتي خطرن کي گهٽائڻ
  • جينياتي ذخيري جي طور تي ڪم ڪرڻ
  • ڪاٺ جي ذريعن ۽ تفريحي علائقن جي طور تي ڪم ڪرڻ

لکين ماڻهن لاءِ ٻيلن ۽ وڻن جي ذريعن جي طور تي ڪم ڪندڙن جي ضروري ايندھن جي ڪاٺ، کاڌي ۽ چاري جي ضرورتن لاءِ گذر سفر, جيڪيون تقريبن مڪمل طور تي ٻيلن تي منحصر آهن.[27]

مکيه ماحولياتي نظام جون خدمتون ايندڙ جدول ۾ خلاصو ڪري سگهجن ٿيون:[28]

ٻيلن جي 3 مکيه قسمن جي ماحولياتي نظامن جون خدمتون
ٻيلي جو قسم ذخيرو ٿيل ڪاربان حياتياتي تنوع ٻيون
پرائمري بوريل ٻيلا 1,042 بلين ٽن ڪاربان، جيڪو هن وقت فضا ۾ ملي ٿو، 1870 کان وٺي سڀني انساني سببن جي اخراج کان 2 ڀيرا وڌيڪ. صرف ڪينيڊا جي ٻيلن پاران ڏنل حياتياتي تنوع جون خدمتون اندازاً 703 بلين ڊالر آهن. اتر آمريڪا ۾ پکين جي تقريبن اڌ نسل لاءِ اهم. دنيا جي مٿاڇري جي تازي پاڻي جو 60 سيڪڙو حصو ان ۾ شامل آهي.
Primary Temperate Forests 119 billion tonnes (like all CO2 emitted by humans in 2005–2017) Old growth forest has very high biodiversity. Some species link terrestrial ecosystems to marine. Some trees can live 1,000 years providing many services to humans. Help to protect people from floods and droughts.
Primary Tropical Forests 471 billion tonnes (more than all CO2 emissions from fossil fuel industry from the year 1750) Contain about two thirds of all species of terrestrial animals and plants. Creates clouds, rainfall.

Some researchers state that forests do not only provide benefits, but can in certain cases also incur costs to humans.[29][30] Forests may impose an economic burden,[31][32] diminish the enjoyment of natural areas,[33] reduce the food-producing capacity of grazing land[34] and cultivated land,[35] reduce biodiversity,[36][37] reduce available water for humans and wildlife,[38][39] harbour dangerous or destructive wildlife,[29][40] and act as reservoirs of human and livestock disease.[41][42]

An important consideration regarding carbon sequestration is that forests can turn from a carbon sink to a carbon source if plant diversity, density or forest area decreases, as has been observed in different tropical forests[43][44][45] The typical tropical forest may become a carbon source by the 2060s.[46] An assessment of European forests found early signs of carbon sink saturation, after decades of increasing strength.[47] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that a combination of measures aimed at increasing forest carbon stocks, andsustainable timber offtake will generate the largest carbon sequestration benefit.[48]

Forest-dependent people

[سنواريو]

The term forest-dependent people is used to describe any of a wide variety of livelihoods that are dependent on access to forests, products harvested from forests, or ecosystem services provided by forests, including those of Indigenous peoples dependent on forests.[49] In India, approximately 22 percent of the population belongs to forest-dependent communities, which live in close proximity to forests and practice agroforestry as a principal part of their livelihood.[50] People of Ghana who rely on timber and bushmeat harvested from forests and Indigenous peoples of the Amazon rainforest are also examples of forest-dependent people.[49] Though forest-dependence by more common definitions is statistically associated with poverty and rural livelihoods, elements of forest-dependence exist in communities with a wide range of characteristics. Generally, richer households derive more cash value from forest resources, whereas among poorer households, forest resources are more important for home consumption and increase community resilience.[51]

Indigenous peoples

[سنواريو]

Forests are fundamental to the culture and livelihood of indigenous people groups that live in and depend on forests,[52] many of which have been removed from and denied access to the lands on which they lived as part of global colonialism. Indigenous lands contain 36% or more of intact forest worldwide, host more biodiversity, and experience less deforestation.[53][54][55] Indigenous activists have argued that degradation of forests and indigenous peoples' marginalization and land dispossession are interconnected.[56][57] Other concerns among indigenous peoples include lack of Indigenous involvement in forest management and loss of knowledge related for the forest ecosystem.[58] Since 2002, the amount of land that is legally owned by or designated for indigenous peoples has broadly increased, but land acquisition in lower-income countries by multinational corporations, often with little or no consultation of indigenous peoples, has also increased.[59] Research in the Amazon rainforest suggests that indigenous methods of agroforestry form reservoirs of biodiversity.[60] In the U.S. state of Wisconsin, forests managed by indigenous people have more plant diversity, fewer invasive species, higher tree regeneration rates, and higher volume of trees.[61]

انتظام

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو ٻيلن جو انتظام
چونڊيل ٻيلن جي شين جي عالمي پيداوار

ٻيلن جي انتظام ۾ گذريل ڪجهه صدين کان ڪافي تبديلي آئي آهي، 1980 جي ڏهاڪي کان تيز تبديلين سان، هڪ اهڙي عمل تي ختم ٿيو جنهن کي هاڻي پائيدار ٻيلن جي انتظام جي نالي سان سڏيو ويندو آهي. ٻيلن جي ماحوليات جا ماهر ٻيلن جي نمونن ۽ عملن تي ڌيان ڏين ٿا، عام طور تي سبب ۽ اثر جي لاڳاپن کي واضح ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان. ٻيلن جا ماهر جيڪي پائيدار ٻيلن جي انتظام جي مشق ڪن ٿا، اهي ماحولياتي، سماجي ۽ اقتصادي قدرن جي انضمام تي ڌيان ڏين ٿا، اڪثر ڪري مقامي برادرين ۽ ٻين اسٽيڪ هولڊرز سان صلاح مشوري سان.


changed considerably over the last few centuries, with rapid changes from the 1980s onward, culminating in a practice now referred to as sustainable forest management. Forest ecologists concentrate on forest patterns and processes, usually with the aim of elucidating cause-and-effect relationships. Foresters who practice sustainable forest management focus on the integration of ecological, social, and economic values, often in consultation with local communities and other stakeholders.

Priest River winds through mountains with a checkerboard design of trees to its east
Priest River winding through Whitetail Butte with lots of forestry to the east—these lot patterns have existed since the mid-19th century. The white patches reflect areas with younger, smaller trees, where winter snow cover shows up brightly to the astronauts. Dark green-brown squares are parcels

Humans have generally decreased the amount of forest worldwide. Anthropogenic factors that can affect forests include logging, urban sprawl, human-caused forest fires, acid rain, invasive species, and the slash and burn practices of swidden agriculture or shifting cultivation. The loss and re-growth of forests lead to a distinction between two broad types of forest: primary or old-growth forest and secondary forest. There are also many natural factors that can cause changes in forests over time, including forest fires, insects, diseases, weather, competition between species, etc. In 1997, the World Resources Institute recorded that only 20% of the world's original forests remained in large intact tracts of undisturbed forest.[62] More than 75% of these intact forests lie in three countries: the boreal forests of Russia and Canada, and the rainforest of Brazil.

According to Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, an estimated 420 ملين هيڪٽر (1.0 ارب acre) of forest have been lost worldwide through deforestation since 1990, but the rate of forest loss has declined substantially. In the most recent five-year period (2015–2020), the annual rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 ملين هيڪٽر (25 ملين acre), down from 12 ملين هيڪٽر (30 ملين acre) annually in 2010–2015.[63]

The forest transition

[سنواريو]

The transition of a region from forest loss to net gain in forested land is referred to as the forest transition. This change occurs through a few main pathways, including increase in commercial tree plantations, adoption of agroforestry techniques by small farmers, or spontaneous regeneration when former agricultural land is abandoned. It can be motivated by the economic benefits of forests, the ecosystem services forests provide, or cultural changes where people increasingly appreciate forests for their spiritual, aesthetic, or otherwise intrinsic value.[64] According to the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, to avoid temperature rise by more than 1.5 degrees above pre-industrial levels, there will need to be an increase in global forest cover equal to the land area of Canada (10 ملين ڪلوميٽرزچورس (3.9 ملين چورس ميل)) by 2050.[65]

China instituted a ban on logging, beginning in 1998, due to the erosion and flooding that it caused.[66] In addition, ambitious tree-planting programmes in countries such as China, India, the United States, and Vietnam – combined with natural expansion of forests in some regions – have added more than 7 ملين هيڪٽر (17 ملين acre) of new forests annually. As a result, the net loss of forest area was reduced to 5.2 ملين هيڪٽر (13 ملين acre) per year between 2000 and 2010, down from 8.3 ملين هيڪٽر (21 ملين acre) annually in the 1990s. In 2015, a study for Nature Climate Change showed that the trend has recently been reversed, leading to an "overall gain" in global biomass and forests. This gain is due especially to reforestation in China and Russia.[67] New forests are not equivalent to old growth forests in terms of species diversity, resilience, and carbon capture. On 7 September 2015, the FAO released a new study stating that over the last 25 years the global deforestation rate has decreased by 50% due to improved management of forests and greater government protection.[68][69]

Proportion of forest in protected areas, by region, 2020[63]

There is an estimated 726 ملين هيڪٽر (1.79 ارب acre) of forest in protected areas worldwide. Of the six major world regions, South America has the highest share of forests in protected areas, at 31 percent. The area of such areas globally has increased by 191 ملين هيڪٽر (470 ملين acre) since 1990, but the rate of annual increase slowed in 2010–2020.[63]

Smaller areas of woodland in cities may be managed as urban forestry, sometimes within public parks. These are often created for human benefits; Attention Restoration Theory argues that spending time in nature reduces stress and improves health, while forest schools and kindergartens help young people to develop social as well as scientific skills in forests. These typically need to be close to where the children live.

Canada

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Forests of Canada
Garibaldi Provincial Park, British Columbia

Canada has about 4 ملين ڪلوميٽرزچورس (1.5 ملين چورس ميل) of forest land. More than 90% of forest land is publicly owned and about 50% of the total forest area is allocated for harvesting. These allocated areas are managed using the principles of sustainable forest management, which include extensive consultation with local stakeholders. About eight percent of Canada's forest is legally protected from resource development.[70][71] Much more forest land—about 40 percent of the total forest land base—is subject to varying degrees of protection through processes such as integrated land use planning or defined management areas, such as certified forests.[71]

By December 2006, over 1.2 ملين ڪلوميٽرزچورس (460٬000 چورس ميل) of forest land in Canada (about half the global total) had been certified as being sustainably managed.[72] Clearcutting, first used in the latter half of the 20th century, is less expensive, but devastating to the environment; and companies are required by law to ensure that harvested areas are adequately regenerated. Most Canadian provinces have regulations limiting the size of new clear-cuts, although some older ones grew to 110 ڪلوميٽرزچورس (42 sq mi) over several years.

The Canadian Forest Service is the government department which looks after Forests in Canada.

لاتويا

[سنواريو]
ڪيگمس ميونسپلٽي ۾ لاتويا جي پائن جو ٻيلو

لاتويا ۾ لڳ ڀڳ 32 لک 70 هزار هيڪٽر (ايڪڙ) ٻيلي جي زمين آهي. جيڪا لاتويا جي ڪل ايراضي 64,590 چورس ڪلوميٽر (24,938 چورس ميل) جي لڳ ڀڳ 50.5٪ جي برابر آهي. 15 لک 10 هزار هيڪٽر (37 لک ايڪڙ) ٻيلي جي زمين (ڪل ٻيلي جي زمين جو 46٪) سرڪاري ملڪيت آهي ۽ 17 لک 50 هزار هيڪٽر (43 لک ايڪڙ) ٻيلي جي زمين (ڪل جو 54٪) خانگي هٿن ۾ آهي. لاتويا جا ٻيلا سالن کان مسلسل وڌي رهيا آهن (جيڪو ڪيترن ئي ٻين قومن جي برعڪس آهي) گهڻو ڪري زراعت لاءِ استعمال نه ٿيندڙ زمين جي ٻيلن جي ڪري. 1935 ۾، صرف 17 لک 57 چورس هيڪٽر (43 لک 40 هزار ايڪڙ) ٻيلي هئي. اڄ اهو 150٪ کان وڌيڪ وڌي ويو آهي. برچ سڀ کان وڌيڪ عام وڻ آهي جنهن جي تعداد 28.2٪ آهي، جنهن کان پوءِ پائن (26.9٪). اسپروس (18.3٪). گرين ايلڊر (9.7٪). ايسپن (8.0٪). ڪارو ايلڊر (5.7٪). اوڪ/راھ (1.2٪). باقي (2.0٪) ٻين سخت ڪاٺ جي وڻن سان گڏ.




today this has increased by more than 150%. Birch is the most common tree at 28.2%, followed by pine (26.9%), spruce (18.3%), grey alder (9.7%), aspen (8.0%), black alder (5.7%), oak/ash (1.2%), with other hardwood trees making up the rest (2.0%).[73][74]

آمريڪا

[سنواريو]

آمريڪا ۾. گھڻا ٻيلا تاريخي طور تي ڪجهه حد تائين انسانن کان متاثر ٿيا آهن. جيتوڻيڪ تازن سالن ۾. بهتر ٻيلن جي طريقن وڏي پيماني تي اثرن کي منظم ڪرڻ يا معتدل ڪرڻ ۾ مدد ڪئي آهي. يو ايس فارسٽ سروس 1997 ۽ 2020 جي وچ ۾ تقريبن 20 لک هيڪٽر (49 لک ايڪڙ) جي خالص نقصان جو اندازو لڳايو. هن اندازي ۾ ٻيلن جي زمين کي ٻين استعمالن ۾ تبديل ڪرڻ شامل آهي، جنهن ۾ شهري ۽ مضافاتي ترقي، انهي سان گڏ ٻيلا لڳائڻ شامل آهن.


, including urban and suburban development, as well as afforestation and natural reversion of abandoned crop and pasture land to forest. In many areas of the United States, the area of forest is stable or increasing, particularly in many northern states. The opposite problem from


flooding has plagued national forests, with loggers complaining that a lack of thinning and proper forest management has resulted in large forest fires.[75][76]

پڻ ڏسو

[سنواريو]
نشان بابباب Ecology
نشان بابباب Trees
نشان بابباب ماحوليات
نشان بابباب ماحول
نشان بابباب وڻ

حوالا

[سنواريو]
  1. ↑ "Forest", Dictionary.com, اصل کان 19 October 2014 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 16 November 2014۔ 
  2. ↑ Schuck, Andreas; Päivinen, Risto; Hytönend, Tuomo; Pajari, Brita (2002), "Compilation of Forestry Terms and Definitions", Joensuu, Finland: European Forest Institute, اصل کان 5 June 2015 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 16 November 2014۔ 
  3. ↑ "Definitions: Indicative definitions taken from the Report of the ad hoc technical expert group on forest biological diversity", Convention on Biological Diversity, 30 November 2006, اصل کان 19 December 2014 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 16 November 2014۔ 
  4. ↑ "Forest definition and extent", United Nations Environment Programme, 27 January 2010, اصل کان 26 July 2010 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 16 November 2014۔ 
  5. ↑ Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 – Terms and definitions. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. 2018. http://www.fao.org/3/I8661EN/i8661en.pdf. 
  6. ↑ The State of the World's Forests 2020. In brief – Forests, biodiversity and people. Rome: FAO & UNEP. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8985en. ISBN 978-92-5-132707-4. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8985en. 
  7. ↑ Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 – Key findings. Rome: FAO. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8753en. ISBN 978-92-5-132581-0. 
  8. ↑ Pan, Yude; Birdsey, Richard A.; Phillips, Oliver L.; Jackson, Robert B. (2013). "The Structure, Distribution, and Biomass of the World's Forests". Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 44 (1): 593–62. doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110512-135914. Bibcode: 2013AREES..44..593P. http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/jrnl/2013/nrs_2013_pan_001.pdf. 
  9. ↑ The State of the World's Forests 2020. In brief – Forests, biodiversity and people. Rome, Italy: FAO & UNEP. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8985en. ISBN 978-92-5-132707-4. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8985en. 
  10. ↑ Pan, Yude; Birdsey, Richard A.; Phillips, Oliver L.; Jackson, Robert B. (2013). "The Structure, Distribution, and Biomass of the World's Forests". Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 44 (1): 593–62. doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110512-135914. Bibcode: 2013AREES..44..593P. http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/jrnl/2013/nrs_2013_pan_001.pdf. 
  11. ↑ Holdridge, L.R.. Life zone ecology. San Jose, Costa Rica: Tropical Science Center. http://reddcr.go.cr/sites/default/files/centro-de-documentacion/holdridge_1966_-_life_zone_ecology.pdf. 
  12. ↑ Edwards, Lin, "Forest and savanna can switch quickly", Phys.org۔ 
  13. ↑ Rasmussen, Carol (17 July 2017), "New study shows the Amazon makes its own rainy season", nasa.gov۔ 
  14. ↑ Loomis, Ilima, "Trees in the Amazon make their own rain"۔ 
  15. ↑ Kimbrough, Liz (16 September 2022), "More droughts are coming, and the Amazon can't keep up: Study", Mongabay۔ 
  16. ↑ Derouin, Sarah (6 January 2022), "Deforestation: facts, causes & effects", Live Science۔ 
  17. ↑ "Deforestation", National Geographic۔ 
  18. ↑ "Eastern Deciduous Forest (U.S. National Park Service)", nps.gov۔ 
  19. ↑ The State of the World's Forests 2020. In brief – Forests, biodiversity and people. Rome, Italy: FAO & UNEP. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8985en. ISBN 978-92-5-132707-4. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8985en. 
  20. ↑ Vogt, Kristina A, ed (2007). "Global Societies and Forest Legacies Creating Today's Forest Landscapes". Forests and Society: Sustainability and Life Cycles of Forests in Human Landscapes. CABI. pp. 30–59. ISBN 978-1-84593-098-1. 
  21. ↑ "Deforestation and Its Effect on the Planet", National Geographic Environment (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), 7 February 2019, اصل کان 19 February 2021 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 21 July 2021۔ 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :1
  23. ↑ Luis Villazon (16 September 2015), "How many trees does it take to produce oxygen for one person?", Science Focus, حاصل ڪيل 12 August 2019۔ 
  24. ↑ Global Warming of 1.5 °C – an IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty Summary for Policymakers. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 6 October 2018. p. 22. http://report.ipcc.ch/sr15/pdf/sr15_spm_final.pdf. Retrieved 11 October 2021. 
  25. ↑ S. Write, Jonathon; Fu, Rong; R. Worden, John; Chakraborty, Sudip; E. Clinton, Nicholas; Risi, Camille; Sun, Ying; Yin, Lei (20 July 2017). "Rainforest-initiated wet season onset over the southern Amazon". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 114 (Forests, Rainfall): 8481–86. doi:10.1073/pnas.1621516114. PMID 28729375. Bibcode: 2017PNAS..114.8481W. 
  26. ↑ Quaglia, Sofia (17 December 2021). "Deforestation making outdoor work unsafe for millions, says study". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/dec/17/deforestation-making-outdoor-work-unsafe-for-millions-says-study. 
  27. ↑ The State of the World's Forests 2020 – Forests, biodiversity and people. Rome: FAO & UNEP. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8642en. ISBN 978-92-5-132419-6. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8642en. 
  28. ↑ "Primary Forests: Boreal, Temperate, Tropical", Woodwell Climate Research Center, Woodwell Climate Research Center, INTACT, Griffits University, GEOS institute, Frankfurt Zoological Society, Australian Rainforest Conservation Society, 17 December 2020, حاصل ڪيل 22 August 2023۔ 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Nasi, R; Wunder, S; Campos A, JJ (11 March 2002), "Forest ecosystem services: can they pay our way out of deforestation?", UNFF II, Costa Rica, اصل کان 4 December 2014 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل۔ 
  30. ↑ Emerton, Lucy (1999), Mount Kenya: The Economics of Community Conservation (Community Conservation research Working Paper), Evaluating Eden Series (Discussion Paper No.4), University of Manchester Institute of Development Policy and Management, اصل کان 4 December 2014 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل۔ 
  31. ↑ Lette, Henk; de Boo, Henneleen (2002), Economic Valuation of Forests and Nature A support tool for effective decision-making, Theme Studies Series 6 Forests, Ede, The Netherlands: Forestry and Biodiversity Support Group, International Agricultural Centre (IAC), Wageningen National Reference Centre for Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (EC-LNV), حاصل ڪيل 16 February 2022۔ 
  32. ↑ Bishop, Joshua T., ed (1999). Valuing Forests A Review of Methods and Applications in Developing Countries. London: Environmental Economics Programme, International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEEI/214574-1153316226850/20486370/ValuingForestsAReviewOfMethodsAndApplicationsInDevelopingCountriesJuly1999.pdf. 
  33. ↑ Gray, Emma F.; Bond, William J. (2013). "Will woody plant encroachment impact the visitor experience and economy of conservation areas?". Koedoe 55 (1). doi:10.4102/koedoe.v55i1.1106. ISSN 0075-6458. 
  34. ↑ Scholes, R.J.; Archer, S.R. (1997). "Tree-Grass Interactions in Savannas". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 28 (1): 517–44. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.28.1.517. Bibcode: 1997AnRES..28..517S. http://cals.arizona.edu/research/archer/reprints/Scholes_Archer_1997_AnRevEcolSys.pdf. 
  35. ↑ Pimentel, David; Pimentel, Marcia H. (2007). Food, Energy, and Society. CRC Press. 
  36. ↑ Ratajczak, Zakary; Nippert, Jesse B.; Collins, Scott L. (2012). "Woody encroachment decreases diversity across North American grasslands and savannas". Ecology 93 (4): 697–703. doi:10.1890/11-1199.1. PMID 22690619. Bibcode: 2012Ecol...93..697R. http://www.k-state.edu/ecophyslab/pdf%27s/Ratajczak,%20Nippert,%20and%20Collins.%202012.%20Ecology.pdf. 
  37. ↑ Parr, Catherine L.; Gray, Emma F.; Bond, William J. (2012). "Cascading biodiversity and functional consequences of a global change–induced biome switch". Diversity and Distributions 18 (5): 493–503. doi:10.1111/j.1472-4642.2012.00882.x. Bibcode: 2012DivDi..18..493P. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259397524. 
  38. ↑ Wilcox, B.P.; Kreuter, U.P. (2003), "Woody plant: streamflow interactions as a basis for land management decisions in drylands", Proceedings VIIth International Rangelands Congress, صص: 989–96۔ 
  39. ↑ Scott, D.F. (1999). "Managing riparian vegetation to sustain streamflow: results of paired catchment experiments in South Africa". Canadian Journal of Forest Research 29 (7): 1149–51. doi:10.1139/x99-042. http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/bitstream/10204/2110/3/scott_1999.pdf. 
  40. ↑ Davidson, A; Elliston, L; Kokic, P; Lawson, K (2005). "Native vegetation: cost of preservation in Australia". Australian Commodities 12 (3): 543–48. http://data.daff.gov.au/data/warehouse/pe_abare99001738/ac05_sept.pdf#page=101. 
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  42. ↑ Margaletic, J (2003). "Small rodents in the forest ecosystem as infectious disease reservoirs" (hr ۾). Acta Med Croatica 57 (5): 421–26. PMID 15011471. 
  43. ↑ Baccini, A.; Walker, W.; Carvalho, L.; Farina, M.; Sulla-Menashe, D.; Houghton, R. A. (2017-10-13). "Tropical forests are a net carbon source based on aboveground measurements of gain and loss" (en ۾). Science 358 (6360): 230–234. doi:10.1126/science.aam5962. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 28971966. Bibcode: 2017Sci...358..230B. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aam5962. 
  44. ↑ Spawn, Seth A.; Sullivan, Clare C.; Lark, Tyler J.; Gibbs, Holly K. (2020-04-06). "Harmonized global maps of above and belowground biomass carbon density in the year 2010" (en ۾). Scientific Data 7 (1): 112. doi:10.1038/s41597-020-0444-4. ISSN 2052-4463. PMID 32249772. Bibcode: 2020NatSD...7..112S. 
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  52. ↑ "Interview: Deforestation Threatens Indonesia's Indigenous Peoples", Human Rights Watch, 22 September 2019۔ 
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  56. ↑ "Indigenous Peoples Excluded from Political Power, Ejected from Lands, Faced Corporations Bent on Destroying Life-Giving Forests, Permanent Forum Told", United Nations Meetings Coverage and Press Releases۔ 
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  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 63.2 حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named :0
  64. ↑ Wilson, Sarah Jane; Schelhas, John; Grau, Ricardo; Nanni, A Sofia; Sloan, Sean (2017). "Forest ecosystem-service transitions: the ecological dimensions of the forest transition". Ecology and Society 22 (4). doi:10.5751/ES-09615-220438. 
  65. ↑ Global Warming of 1.5 °C – an IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty Summary for Policymakers. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 6 October 2018. p. 22. http://report.ipcc.ch/sr15/pdf/sr15_spm_final.pdf. Retrieved 11 October 2021. 
  66. ↑ "Ban on Logging Saves Forests". People's Daily. 25 October 2001. http://english.people.com.cn/english/200110/25/eng20011025_83160.html. 
  67. ↑ Liu, Yi Y.; van Dijk, Albert I.J.M.; de Jeu, Richard A.M.; Canadell, Josep G.; McCabe, Matthew F.; Evans, Jason P.; Wang, Guojie (30 March 2015). "Recent reversal in loss of global terrestrial biomass". Nature Climate Change 5 (5): 470. doi:10.1038/nclimate2581. Bibcode: 2015NatCC...5..470L. 
  68. ↑ "World deforestation slows down as more forests are better managed", fao.org, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation, اصل کان 12 October 2015 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 2 October 2015۔ 
  69. ↑ MacDicken, K.; Jonsson, Ö.; Piña, L.; Maulo, S.; Adikari, Y.; Garzuglia, M.; Lindquist, E.; Reams, G. ۽ ٻيو (2015), "Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015", fao.org, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, اصل کان 3 October 2015 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل۔ 
  70. ↑ "Canada", Global Forest Watch Canada, اصل کان 4 December 2014 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 28 November 2014۔ 
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 "Canada's Forests", Natural Resources Canada, 14 October 2014, اصل کان 20 November 2014 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 28 November 2014۔ 
  72. ↑ "Statistics", Certification status – Canada & the globe, Canadian Sustainable Forestry Certification Coalition, حاصل ڪيل 28 November 2014۔ 
  73. ↑ "Forestry in 2015 (only in Latvian) | Latvijas statistika", www.csb.gov.lv (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), اصل کان 22 December 2017 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 21 December 2017۔ 
  74. ↑ "Buklets "Meža nozare Latvijā"", www.zm.gov.lv, اصل کان 22 December 2017 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 21 December 2017۔ 
  75. ↑ "Wildfires Ignite Forest Management Debate", Wildrockiesalliance.org, اصل کان 9 May 2013 تي آرڪائيو ٿيل, حاصل ڪيل 3 July 2013۔ 
  76. ↑ Brock, Emily K. (2015). Money Trees: The Douglas Fir and American Forestry, 1900–1944. Oregon State University Press. 

ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا

[سنواريو]
ٻيلو بابت وڌيڪ ڏسو وڪيپيڊيا جي ڀينر رٿائن ۾:
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