مواد ڏانھن هلو

فائلم

کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
(حياتياتي بڻياد کان چوريل)
حياتيدائروورهاستبڻياددرجوترتيبخانداننسلجنس
طبقاتي نظام حياتياتي درجابندي جا اٺ وڏا ٽئڪسانامي وارا درجاسانچو:بائيولاجيڪل جنسوار ورڇ\مرڪزي وچ وارا ننڍا درجا ناھن ڏيکاريل

حياتياتي بڻياد يا فائلم (phylum؛ /ˈfaɪləm/) جنھن جو جمع فائلا (phyla) آھي، حياتياتي درجابندي يا ٽيڪسانومي جي گروھه بندي جو ھڪ گروھه يا درجو آھي جيڪو ڪنگڊم کان پوءِ جو درجو آھي. زندگيءَ جا ٽي دائرا جن جي گروھه بندي ڪنگڊمن ۾ ٿيل آھي. ھر ڪنگڊم جي گروھه بندي وري بنيادن يا فائلا ۾ ٿيل آھي ۽ ھر حياتياتي بڻياد يا فائلم وري طبقن يا ڪلاسن ۾ ورھايل آھي. حياتياتي بڻياد يا فائلم بہ ھڪ قسم جي تقسيم آھي.[1][2][3] اينيميليا ڪنگڊم 32 فائلا ۾ ورھايل آھي. پلانٽا ڪنگڊم 14 ۽ فنگس ڪنگڊم 8 فائلا (بنياد) ۾ ورھايل آھي. فائلوجينياتيات (Phylogenetics) ۾ موجوده تحقيق، وڏين ڪلئڊن، جهڙوڪ ايڪڊيسوزوآ ۽ ايمبريوفائٽا ۽ فائلا جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن کي پڌرو ڪري ٿو.

تفصيل

[سنواريو]

اصطلاح، "فائلم" سال 1866ع ۾ ارنسٽ هيڪل پاران يوناني لفظ، "فائلون" (φῦλον، معني "نسل") مان ٺاهي وئي، جيڪا "فائل" (φυλή، معني"قبيلي") سان لاڳاپيل آهي. هيڪل نوٽ ڪيو ته ذاتون مسلسل نئين نسلن ۾ ترقي ڪنديون رهيون آهن جيڪي پاڻ ۾ ڪجهه لاڳيتي خاصيتون برقرار رکنديون آهن ۽ تنهن ڪري ڪجهه خاصيتون جيڪي انهن کي هڪ گروهه ("هڪ خودمختاري اتحاد") جي طور تي فرق ڪن ٿيون:

"شايد اهڙي حقيقي ۽ مڪمل طور تي خودمختاري اتحاد سڀني نسلن جو مجموعو آهي، جيڪي آهستي آهستي هڪ ئي عام اصل شڪل مان نڪرندا آهن، مثال طور، سڀئي فقرا. "

ٻوٽن جي درجه بندي ۾، آگسٽ ڊبليو. ايکلر (1883) ٻوٽن کي پنجن گروپن ۾ ورهايو، جنهن جو نالو "ڊويزن" آهي، اصطلاح جيڪي اڄ به ٻوٽن، الجي ۽ فنگس جي گروپن لاءِ استعمال ۾ اچي ٿي. حيواني فائلا جون وصفون ڇهن لينيئن طبقن ۽ جارجز ڪيوئر جي چئن شاخن ۾ انهن جي اصليت کان تبديل ٿي چڪيون آهن.

غير رسمي طور تي، فائلا کي جسم جي منصوبي جي عام خاصيتن جي بنياد تي جاندارن جي گروپن جي طور تي سمجهي سگهجي ٿو. بنيادي طور تي، هڪ فائلم کي ٻن طريقن سان بيان ڪري سگهجي ٿو: جاندارن جي هڪ گروهه جي طور تي هڪ خاص حد تائين مورفولوجيڪل يا ترقياتي هڪجهڙائي (فينيٽڪ وصف)، يا هڪ خاص درجي جي ارتقائي تعلق سان، جاندارن جو هڪ گروهه (فائلوجينياتياتي تعريف). (ارتقائي) لاڳاپن جي حوالي کان سواءِ لينئي جي درجي بندي جي سطح کي بيان ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش غير اطمينان بخش رهندي آهي، پر هڪ مورفولوجيڪل نوعيت جي سوال، جهڙوڪ مختلف جسماني منصوبا ڪيئن ڪامياب هئا؟، کي خطاب ڪندي، هڪ فينيٽڪ تعريف مفيد آهي.


term phylum was coined in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel from the Greek phylon (φῦλον, "race, stock"), related to phyle (φυλή, "tribe, clan").[4][5] Haeckel noted that species constantly evolved into new species that seemed to retain few consistent features among themselves and therefore few features that distinguished them as a group ("a self-contained unity"): "perhaps such a real and completely self-contained unity is the aggregate of all species which have gradually evolved from one and the same common original form, as, for example, all vertebrates. We name this aggregate [a] Stamm [i.e., stock / tribe] (Phylon)."[lower-alpha 1] In plant taxonomy, August W. Eichler (1883) classified plants into five groups named divisions, a term that remains in use today for groups of plants, algae and fungi.[1][6] The definitions of zoological phyla have changed from their origins in the six Linnaean classes and the four embranchements of Georges Cuvier.[7]

Informally, phyla can be thought of as groupings of organisms based on general specialization of body plan.[8] At its most basic, a phylum can be defined in two ways: as a group of organisms with a certain degree of morphological or developmental similarity (the phenetic definition), or a group of organisms with a certain degree of evolutionary relatedness (the phylogenetic definition).[9] Attempting to define a level of the Linnean hierarchy without referring to (evolutionary) relatedness is unsatisfactory, but a phenetic definition is useful when addressing questions of a morphological nature—such as how successful different body plans were.[حوالو گهربل]

جينياتيات جي بنياد تي تعريف

[سنواريو]

مٿين تعريفن ۾ سڀ کان اهم مقصدي طريقو، ”ڪجهه درجو“ آهي. اهو بيان ڪري ٿو ته ڪيئن مختلف جاندارن کي مختلف فيلا جا ميمبر ٿيڻ گهرجن. گھٽ ۾ گھٽ ضرورت اھا آھي ته فيلم ۾ موجود سڀئي جاندار ھڪ ٻئي سان واضع طور تي ڪنھن ٻئي گروھ جي ڀيٽ ۾ وڌيڪ ويجھا ھجن. جيتوڻيڪ اهو مسئلو آهي ڇو ته گهرج جو دارومدار جاندارن جي رشتن جي ڄاڻ تي آهي: جيئن وڌيڪ ڊيٽا دستياب ٿئي ٿي، خاص طور تي ماليڪيولر مطالعي مان، اسان بهتر طور تي گروپن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپا طئي ڪرڻ جي قابل آهيون. تنهن ڪري فائلا کي ضم يا ورهائي سگهجي ٿو جيڪڏهن اهو ظاهر ٿئي ٿو ته اهي هڪ ٻئي سان لاڳاپيل آهن يا نه. مثال طور، ڏاڙهي وارا ڪيڙا 20 صدي جي وچ ڌاري هڪ نئين فائيلم (پوگونوفورا) جي طور تي بيان ڪيا ويا، پر ماليڪيولر ڪم تقريبن اڌ صدي کان پوءِ انهن کي اينيليڊس جو هڪ گروهه مليو، تنهن ڪري فائلا کي ضم ڪيو ويو (ڏاڙهي وارا ڪيڙا هاڻي هڪ اينيليڊ خاندان آهن). ٻئي طرف، انتهائي پرازيتي طفيلي فائيلم، ميسوزوئا (Mesozoa) کي ٻن فائلا؛ رومبوزووا (Rhombozoa) ۽ آرٿونيڪٽيڊا (Orthonectida)، ۾ ورهايو ويو جڏهن اهو دريافت ڪيو ويو ته آرٿونيڪٽيڊا شايد ڊيوٽروسٽومس آهن ۽ رومبوزوا پروٽوسٽومس آهن.

فائلا جي هي تبديليون، ڪجهه حياتيات جي ماهرن کي، گروپ سائيز جي ڪنهن به رسمي درجه بندي کان سواءِ، ڪليڊن (Clades) کي درجه بندي جي ميمبر طور، فائلا کي ختم ڪرڻ جي طرف وٺي ويون.

most important objective measure in the above definitions is the "certain degree" that defines how different organisms need to be members of different phyla. The minimal requirement is that all organisms in a phylum should be clearly more closely related to one another than to any other group.[9] Even this is problematic because the requirement depends on knowledge of organisms' relationships: as more data become available, particularly from molecular studies, we are better able to determine the relationships between groups. So phyla can be merged or split if it becomes apparent that they are related to one another or not. For example, the bearded worms were described as a new phylum (the Pogonophora) in the middle of the 20th century, but molecular work almost half a century later found them to be a group of annelids, so the phyla were merged (the bearded worms are now an annelid family).[10] On the other hand, the highly parasitic phylum Mesozoa was divided into two phyla (Orthonectida and Rhombozoa) when it was discovered the Orthonectida are probably deuterostomes and the Rhombozoa protostomes.[11]

This changeability of phyla has led some biologists to call for the concept of a phylum to be abandoned in favour of placing taxa in clades without any formal ranking of group size.[9]

جسماني منصوبي جي بنياد تي تعريف

[سنواريو]

جسماني منصوبي جي بنياد تي فائلم جي هڪ تعريف، پيلينٽالوجسٽ گراهام بڊ ۽ سورن جينسن پيش ڪي وئي آهي (جيئن ته هيڪل هڪ صدي اڳ ڪيو هو). تعريف پيش ڪئي وئي ڇاڪاڻ ته ناپيد جاندارن جي درجه بندي ڪرڻ تمام مشڪل آهي: اهي اهي شاخون ٿي سگهن ٿيون جيڪي فيلم جي لڪير کان ڌار ٿي ويا آهن ان کان اڳ جيڪي ڪردارن کي جديد فيلم جي وضاحت ڪن ٿا اهي سڀ حاصل ڪيا ويا. بڊ ۽ جينسن جي وصف موجب، هڪ فيلم جي وضاحت ڪيل ڪردارن جي هڪ سيٽ سان ڪئي وئي آهي جنهن جي سڀني جاندار نمائندن طرفان حصيداري ڪئي وئي آهي.

اهو طريقو ڪجهه ننڍا مسئلا آڻيندو آهي؛ مثال طور، ابن ڏاڏن جا اکر جيڪي اڪثر فائلم جي ميمبرن ۾ عام هوندا آهن، شايد ڪجهه ميمبرن کان گم ٿي ويا هجن. انهي سان گڏ، هي تعريف وقت جي هڪ خودمختيار نقطي، "حال" تي ٻڌل آهي. بهرحال، جيئن ته اهو ڪردار تي ٻڌل آهي، اهو فوسل رڪارڊ تي لاڳو ڪرڻ آسان آهي. هڪ وڏو مسئلو اهو آهي ته اهو هڪ موضوعي فيصلي تي ڀاڙي ٿو جنهن بابت جاندارن جي ڪهڙن گروپن کي فيلا سمجهيو وڃي.

اهو طريقو ڪارائتو آهي ڇاڪاڻ ته اهو ناپيد ٿيندڙ جاندارن کي ”اسٽيم گروپس“ جي درجي بندي ڪرڻ آسان بڻائي ٿو، جنهن سان اهي سڀ کان وڌيڪ مشابهت رکن ٿا، رڳو ٽيڪنيڪي لحاظ کان اهم مماثلتن جي بنياد تي. بهرحال، اهو ثابت ڪرڻ ته فوسل جو تعلق فيلم جي تاج گروپ سان آهي، ڇاڪاڻ ته ان کي لازمي طور تي تاج گروپ جي هڪ ذيلي سيٽ لاءِ منفرد ڪردار ڏيکارڻ گهرجي. ان کان علاوه، هڪ فيلم جي اسٽيم گروپ ۾ موجود جاندارن کي فيلم جي "جسم جو منصوبو" حاصل ڪري سگهي ٿو، ان ۾ شامل ٿيڻ جي سڀني خاصيتن کان سواء. هي ان خيال کي ڪمزور ڪري ٿو ته هر هڪ فيلا هڪ الڳ جسماني منصوبي جي نمائندگي ڪري ٿو.

هن وصف کي استعمال ڪندي هڪ درجه بندي شايد نادر گروپن جي بقا جي موقعي تي سختي سان متاثر ٿي سگهي ٿي، جيڪو هڪ فيلم کي ان کان وڌيڪ متنوع بڻائي سگهي ٿو جيڪو ٻي صورت ۾ هوندو.

definition of a phylum based on body plan has been proposed by paleontologists Graham Budd and Sören Jensen (as Haeckel had done a century earlier). The definition was posited because extinct organisms are hardest to classify: they can be offshoots that diverged from a phylum's line before the characters that define the modern phylum were all acquired. By Budd and Jensen's definition, a phylum is defined by a set of characters shared by all its living representatives.

This approach brings some small problems—for instance, ancestral characters common to most members of a phylum may have been lost by some members. Also, this definition is based on an arbitrary point of time: the present. However, as it is character based, it is easy to apply to the fossil record. A greater problem is that it relies on a subjective decision about which groups of organisms should be considered as phyla.

The approach is useful because it makes it easy to classify extinct organisms as "stem groups" to the phyla with which they bear the most resemblance, based only on the taxonomically important similarities.[9] However, proving that a fossil belongs to the crown group of a phylum is difficult, as it must display a character unique to a sub-set of the crown group.[9] Furthermore, organisms in the stem group of a phylum can possess the "body plan" of the phylum without all the characteristics necessary to fall within it. This weakens the idea that each of the phyla represents a distinct body plan.[12]

A classification using this definition may be strongly affected by the chance survival of rare groups, which can make a phylum much more diverse than it would be otherwise.[13]

ڄاتل فائلا

[سنواريو]

حيوانات

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو حيوانات

ڪل انگ تخمينو آهن؛ مختلف ليکڪن جا انگ اکر مختلف آهن، گهٽ ۾ گهٽ نه ته ڪجهه بيان ڪيل نوعن تي ٻڌل آهن[14] ۽ ڪجهه غير بيان ڪيل نوعن جي انگن اکرن جي رد و بدل (extrapolation) تي ٻڌل آهن. مثال طور، نيماٽوڊز جي تقريبن 25,000 کان 27,000 نوعن جو بيان ڪيو ويو آهن، جڏهن ته نيماٽوڊز جي شايع ٿيل تخميني نوعن جي ڪل تعداد ۾ 10,000 کان 20,000؛ پنج لک؛ هڪ ڪروڙ ۽ ڏهه ڪروڙ تائين شامل آهن.[15]

پروٽوسٽومز بيلئٽيريا نيفروزوآ
ڊيوٽيروسٽومز
بنيادي/تڪراري غير بيلئٽيريا
وينڊوبايونٽا
پئرازوآ
ٻيا
فائلم معني عام نالا ممتاز خصوصيتون بيان ڪيل ٽئڪسا جي تعداد
اگماتا ٽڪرا ٽڪرا مخروطي خول 5 نوعون، ناپيد
اينئلڊا ننڍا ڇلا[16]:306 ڀاڳي وارا جيت، اينيلڊز گهڻ گول سيگمينٽ 22,000+ معدوم
آرٿروپوڊا جڙيل پير آرٿروپاڊز چٽن وارو، ڦاڪدار ٻاھرين جسماني کوپو 1,250,000+ موجود[17] 20,000+ معدوم
براڪيوپوڊا بازو پير[16]:336 چمڪندڙ خول

s[16]:336

لوفوفور ۽ پيڊيڪل 300–500 موجود

12,000+ معدوم

برايوزوآ(ايڪٽوپروڪٽا) سينور جا جانور سينور جا جانور، سامونڊي ميٽ، ايڪٽوپروڪٽس[16]:332 لوفوفور، بنا پيڊيڪل، 6,000 موجود

t[17]

چائٽوگناٿا ڊگهي وار وارا جبڙا تير جيهڙا جيت[16]:342 سر جي ٻنهي پاسن کان چتين واري اسپائنس، پنن تقريبن 100 موجود
ڪورڊيٽا تنتن جي ڊور وارا ڪورڊيٽس پٺ جي هڏي ۾ تنتي جي ڊور، نوٽوڪورڊ، گلڦڙا، اينڊو اسٽائل مقعد، پوڇڙ تقريبن 55,000 مٿان

+[17]

نائڊريا ڪاٽي وارا نيٽل نڊاريئن نيماٽوسسٽ (چڀڻ وارا گھرڙا) approx. 16,000[17]تقريبن 16,000
ٽينوفورا ڪنگهي رکندڙ ڪَنگي نما جيلي

s[16]:256

فيوز ٿيل سليا جون اٺ ”ڪنگ قطارون“ تقريبن 100 کان 150 موجود
سائڪليوفورا ڦيٽو رکندڙ گول وات جي چوڌاري ننڍڙا سيليا، ٿيلي جهڙو جسم 3+
ڊائيئسميڊا لوزئنجي جانور سنگل اينٽروپوسٽريئر جي چوڌاري محوري گھرڙا انڊوپاراسائٽس، جن جي چوڌاري سيليا وارا گھرڙا 100+
ڪئنوڊرماٽا ڇلڪي دار چمڙي ڪئنوڊرمز[16]:348 جاندار شڪلين ۾ پنج فولڊ ريڊيل سميٽري، ميسوڊرمل ڪئلشيم واري اسپائنس تقريبن 7,500 موجود;[17]

تقريبن 13,000 معدوم

اينٽوپروڪٽا اندرين مقعد وارا

anus[16]:292

گوبلٽ ڪيڙا مقعد جي اندر جو سِليا جو ڇلو تقريبن 150
گيسٽروٽريڪا وار وارو پيٽ

stomach[16]:288

وار وارا پيٽ ٻه ٽرمينل چپڪ ٽيوب تقريبن 690
نيٿوسٽاميولڊا orifice جبري وارا جيت[18]

worms[16]:260

Tiny worms related to rotifers with no body cavity

ننڍڙا ڪيڙا

تقريبن 100
هيميڪورڊيٽا اڌ ڪورڊ وارا

cord[16]:344

ھيمي ڪورڊيٽ، اڪورن ڪيڙا Stomochord in collar, pharyngeal slits تقريبن 130 موجود
ڪنورينڪا حرڪت بغير ڪيچڙ وارا Eleven segments, each with a dorsal plate تقريبن 150
لوريسيفيرا هٿيار وارا برش مٿي وارا Umbrella-like scales at each end تقريبن 122
مائڪرونئٿوزوآ ننڍڙي جهٻر وارا Accordion-like extensible thorax 1
مولسڪا Soft[16]:320نرم مولسڪ، گهوگهيتا Muscular foot and mantle round shell 85,000+ موجود

extant;[17] 80,000+ معدوم extinct[19]

مونوبلاسٽوزوآ
(Nomen inquirendum) 		One sprout animals distinct anterior/posterior parts and being densely ciliated, especially around the "mouth" and "anus". 1
نيماٽوڊا ڏور جيهڙا Roundworms, threadworms, eelworms, nematodes[16]:274 Round cross section, keratin cuticle 25,000[17]
نيماٽومارفا Thread form[16]:276 Horsehair worms, Gordian worms[16]:276 Long, thin parasitic worms closely related to nematodes approx. 320
نيميرٽيا سامونڊي پري

sea nymph[16]:270

Ribbon worms[16]:270 Unsegmented worms, with a proboscis housed in a cavity derived from the coelom called the rhynchocoel approx. 1,200
اونيڪوڦورا Claw bearer Velvet worms[16]:328 Worm-like animal with legs tipped by chitinous claws approx. 200 extant
آرٿونيڪٽيڊا Straight swimmer Parasitic, microscopic, simple, wormlike organisms 20
پئٽئلونئمائي پنن جيهڙا An extinct phylum from the Ediacaran. They are bottom-dwelling and immobile, shaped like leaves (frondomorphs), feathers or spindles. 3 classes, extinct
ڦورونيڊا زيوس ديوتا جي رکيل گهوڙي جي نعل جيهڙا ڪيڙا U-shaped gut 11
پليڪوزوآ قرصي جيت Trichoplaxes, placozoans[16]:242 Differentiated top and bottom surfaces, two ciliated cell layers, amoeboid fiber cells in between 4+
پلئٽيھيلمنٿس Flat worm[16]:262چپٽا ڪيڙا Flatworms[16]:262چپٽا ڪيڙا Flattened worms with no body cavity. Many are parasitic. approx. 29,500[17]
پوريفيرا سوراخ وارا Sponges[16]:246اسفنج Perforated interior wall, simplest of all known animals 10,800 extant[17]
پراياپوليڊا Little Priapus Penis worms Penis-shaped worms approx. 20
پروآرٽيڪيولاٽا Before articulates An extinct group of mattress-like organisms that display "glide symmetry." Found during the Ediacaran. 3 classes, extinct
روٽيفيرا ڦيٽي وارا Rotifers[16]:282 Anterior crown of cilia approx. 3,500[17]
سئڪوريٽڊا ٿيلي ۽ جهرين وارا سئڪوريٽس، سائز ۾ صرف هڪ ملي ميٽر (1.3 mm) تائين، هڪ ڪروي يا نيم ڪروي جسم ۽ مستقل وات کان ممتاز ڪيو ويندو آهي. هنن جا جسم هڪ ٿلهي پر لچڪدار ڪيوٽيڪل سان ڍڪيل آهن. هن جي وات جي مٿان هڪ نو ڊيول هوندو آهي. هن جي جسم جي چوڌاري 8 سوراخ هڪ ڪٽيل مخروط ۾ ريڊيل پرتن جي شڪل ۾ هوندا آهن. هڪ ڊيوٽيروسٽوم [20] يا هڪ ابتدائي اڪديسوزوئا سمجهيو ويندو آهي.[21]ecdysozoan.[22] 2 نوعون، ناپيد
ٽارڊيگراڊا سست قدم پاڻي جا رڇ Water Bear

سينور جا سوئر piglets

آرٿروپاڊز جا خوردبيني مائٽ، چار ڀاڱي وارو جسم ۽ مٿو رکندا آهن. 1,000
ٽرائلوبوزوآ ٽي لٽ وارا جانور
ٽرائلوبوزوآ
ڊسڪوائڊل جاندارن جو هڪ ٽيڪسون جيڪو ٽرائي سينٽرڪ سميٽري ڏيکاري ٿو. سڀ ايڊياڪرن دور جا آهن. 18 نسلون، معدوم
ويچوليڪوليا قديم رهاڪو ويٽيوڪوليئن ٿي سگهي ٿو ته ڪورڊيٽ جو هڪ ذيلي فائلم هجي. انهن جو جسم ٻن حصن تي مشتمل آهي: هڪ وڏو اڳيون حصو ۽ هڪ وڏي ”وات“ سان ڍڪيل آهي ۽ هر پاسي کان سؤ گول گول شيون جن کي گلڦڙن يا گلڦڙن جي ويجهي سوراخ سان تعبير ڪيو ويو آهي. انهن جي پوئين فرينڪس 7 حصن تي مشتمل آهي. 15 نوعون، معدوم
زيناڪوئلومارفا عجيب گفا واري شڪل زيناڪوئلومارف ننڍا، سادا جانور، ٻه طرفي، پر عام ٻه طرفي ڍانچي جو فقدان آهي جهڙوڪ گٽ جي گفا، مقعد ۽ گردش جا نظام

s[23]

400+
ڪل: 39 1,525,000[17]

ٻوٽا

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو ٻوٽا

ٻوٽن جي بادشاھت (Kingdom Plantae) مختلف حياتيات جي ماهرن طرفان، مختلف طريقن سان بيان ڪئي وي آهي. سڀني تعريفن ۾ زنده ايمبريوفائٽس (زمين جا ٻوٽا) شامل آهن، جنهن ۾، ڪلئڊ، وريڊيپلانٽائي (Viridiplantae) ٺاهڻ لاء ٻه سائي الجي جا ڊويزن؛ ڪلوروفائٽا ۽ ڪروفائٽا، شامل ڪيا ويا آهن. هيٺ ڏنل جدول "پلانٽائي" (Plantae) کي " آرڪئيپلاسٽيڊا" (Archaeplastida)، [24] هڪ گروپ جنهن ۾ ويريڊيپلانٽائي ۽ الجي جا ڊويزن، روڊوفائٽا ۽ گلوڪوفائٽا، شامل آهن، سان برابر ڪرڻ ۾، ڪيواليئر-اسمٿ نظام (Cavalier-Smith System) جي پيروي ڪري ٿو.

ڊويزن جي سطح تي ٻوٽن جي تعريف ۽ درجه بندي پڻ هڪ کان ٻئي ذريعي تائين مختلف آهن ۽ تازيء سالن ۾ ترقي سان تبديل ٿي وئي آهي. اهڙيءَ طرح ڪجهه ذريعا هارس ٽيل کي ڊويزن، آرٿروفائٽا (Arthrophyta) ۾ ۽ برسيان (Ferns) کي ڊويزن، مونيلوفائٽا (Monilophyta) ۾ رکن ٿا،[25] جڏهن ته ٻيا ان ٻنهي کي هڪئي مونيلوفائٽا ۾ رکن ٿا، جيئن هيٺ ڏنل جدول ۾ ڏيکاريل آهي. ڊويزن، پائنوفائٽا (Pinophyta) سڀني جمنواسپرمز (يعني سائڪڊز، جنگوز ۽ نيٽوفائٽس سميت)،[26] يا اڪيلي ڪونيفيرن لاءِ استعمال ٿي سگهي ٿي، جهڙوڪ هيٺ ڏنل آهي.

سال 1998ع ۾ اي پي جي نظام (APG System) جي پهرين اشاعت کان وٺي، جن ۾ اينجيوسپرمز جي آرڊر جي سطح تائين جي درجه بندي جي تجويز ڏني وئي، ڪيترن ئي ذريعا، ترتيب (Order) کان اعلي درجن کي، غير رسمي ڪلئڊن (informal clades) طور تي استعمال ڪرڻ لاء ترجيح ڏنا. هيٺ ڏنل روايتي ڀاڱن کي، جتي رسمي درجا مهيا ڪيا ويا آهن، تمام گھڻي هيٺين سطح، مثال طور ذيلي ڪلاس، تائين گهٽايو ويو آهي.[27]

زميني ٻوٽا ويريڊيپلانٽائي
سائي الجي
ٻيون الجيون، (بليفائٽا)[28]
ڊويزن معنا عام نالو ممتاز خصوصيتون Species described
انٿوسيروٽوفائٽا[29] انٿوسيروس جيهڙا ٻوٽا هارن وورٽ Horn-shaped sporophytes, no vascular system

سڱ جي شڪل وارا

100–300+
برايوفائٽا[30] بريوم

موس

موس Persistent unbranched sporophytes, no vascular system approx. 12,000
ڪئروفائٽا الجي جيهڙا ٻوٽا ڪئروفائٽس approx. 1,000
ڪلوروفائٽا سائي رنگ جا الجي ٻوٽا

s[16]:200

ڪلوروفائٽس approx. 7,000
سائيڪاڊوفائٽا[31] پالم، ناريل، کجي جيهڙا ٻوٽا سائيڪاڊز Seeds, crown of compound leaves approx. 100–200
جنڪگوفائٽا[32] جنڪگو جيهڙا ٻوٽا جِنڪگوفائٽس Seeds not protected by fruit only 1 extant; 50+ extinct
گلوڪوفائٽا نيري-سائي رنگ جا ٻوٽا گلوڪوفائٽس 15
نيٽوفائٽا[33] جيهڙا ٻوٽا نيٽوفائٽس Seeds and woody vascular system with vessels approx. 70
لڪوفائٽا[34] بگهڙ جي پير جيهڙا ٻوٽا ڪلب موس (سينور) Microphyll leaves, vascular system 1,290 extant
اينجيوسپرمائي ٻج وارا گلن وارا ٻوٽا، اينجيوسپرمز Flowers and fruit, vascular system with vessels 300,000
مرڪنٽيوفائٽا، [35]

هيپاٽوفائٽا[36]

جگر جي شڪل وارا ٻوٽا ليور وورٽ Ephemeral unbranched sporophytes, no vascular system approx. 9,000
پوليپوڊيوفائٽا پوليپوڊيئم جيهڙا ٻوٽا برسيان Megaphyll leaves, vascular system approx. 10,560
پائڪوزوآ ڏاڍا ننڍڙا جانور Picozoans, picobiliphytes 1
پائنوفائٽا،[37]

ڪونيفيروفائٽا[38]

نوڪدار ٻوٽا
ڪون وارا ٻوٽا 		ڪونيفر، پائن Cones containing seeds and wood composed of tracheids 629 extant
پرئسينوڊرميٽا پراسينوڊرما جيهڙا ٻوٽا Picozoans, picobiliphytes, biliphytes 8
روڊوفائٽا گلابي رنگ جا ٻوٽا ڳاڙهي الجي Use phycobiliproteins as accessory pigments. approx. 7,000
ڪل: 14 ڊويزن

فنگس

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو فنگس
Division Meaning Common name Distinguishing characteristics Species described
Ascomycota Bladder fungus[16]:396 Ascomycetes,[16]:396 sac fungi Tend to have fruiting bodies (ascocarp).[39] Filamentous, producing hyphae separated by septa. Can reproduce asexually.[40] 30,000
Basidiomycota Small base fungus[16]:402 Basidiomycetes,[16]:402 club fungi Bracket fungi, toadstools, smuts and rust. Sexual reproduction.[41] 31,515
Blastocladiomycota Offshoot branch fungus[42] Blastoclads Less than 200
Chytridiomycota Little cooking pot fungus[43] Chytrids Predominantly Aquatic saprotrophic or parasitic. Have a posterior flagellum. Tend to be single celled but can also be multicellular.[44][45][46] 1000+
Glomeromycota Ball of yarn fungus[16]:394 Glomeromycetes, AM fungi[16]:394 Mainly arbuscular mycorrhizae present, terrestrial with a small presence on wetlands. Reproduction is asexual but requires plant roots.[41] 284
Microsporidia Small seeds[47] Microsporans[16]:390 1400
Neocallimastigomycota New beautiful whip fungus[48] Neocallimastigomycetes Predominantly located in digestive tract of herbivorous animals. Anaerobic, terrestrial and aquatic.[49] approx. 20 [50]
Zygomycota Pair fungus[16]:392 Zygomycetes[16]:392 Most are saprobes and reproduce sexually and asexually.[49] approx. 1060
Total: 8

Phylum Microsporidia is generally included in kingdom Fungi, though its exact relations remain uncertain,[51] and it is considered a protozoan by the International Society of Protistologists[52] (see Protista, below). Molecular analysis of Zygomycota has found it to be polyphyletic (its members do not share an immediate ancestor),[53] which is considered undesirable by many biologists. Accordingly, there is a proposal to abolish the Zygomycota phylum. Its members would be divided between phylum Glomeromycota and four new subphyla incertae sedis (of uncertain placement): Entomophthoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, Mucoromycotina, and Zoopagomycotina.[51]

پروٽسٽا

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو پروٽسٽ

Kingdom Protista (or Protoctista) is included in the traditional five- or six-kingdom model, where it can be defined as containing all eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi.[16]:120 Protista is a paraphyletic taxon,[54] which is less acceptable to present-day biologists than in the past. Proposals have been made to divide it among several new kingdoms, such as Protozoa and Chromista in the Cavalier-Smith system.[55]

Protist taxonomy has long been unstable,[56] with different approaches and definitions resulting in many competing classification schemes. Many of the phyla listed below are used by the Catalogue of Life,[57] and correspond to the Protozoa-Chromista scheme,[52] with updates from the latest (2022) publication by Cavalier-Smith.[58] Other phyla are used commonly by other authors, and are adapted from the system used by the International Society of Protistologists (ISP). Some of the descriptions are based on the 2019 revision of eukaryotes by the ISP.[59]

Stramenopiles "Chromista"
Alveolata
Rhizaria
"Hacrobia"
"Sarcomastigota" "Protozoa"
"Excavata"
Orphan groups
Phylum Meaning Common name Distinguishing characteristics Species described Image
Amoebozoa Amorphous animals Amoebozoans Presence of pseudopodia for amoeboid movement, tubular cristae.[59] approx. 2,400[60]
Apicomplexa Apical infolds[61] Apicomplexans, sporozoans Mostly parasitic, at least one stage of the life cycle with flattened subpellicular vesicles and a complete apical complex, non-photosynthetic apicoplast.[59] over 6,000[61]
Apusozoa
(paraphyletic) 		Apusomonas-like animals Gliding biciliates with two or three connectors between centrioles 32
Bigyra Two rings Stramenopiles with a double helix in ciliary transition zone
Cercozoa Flagellated animal Cercozoans Defined by molecular phylogeny, lacking distinctive morphological or behavioural characters.[59]
Chromerida Chromera-like organisms Chrompodellids, chromerids, colpodellids[62] Biflagellates, chloroplasts with four membranes, incomplete apical complex, cortical alveoli, tubular cristae.[59] 8[63]
Choanozoa
(paraphyletic) 		Funnel animals[16] Opisthokont protists Filose pseudopods; some with a colar of microvilli surrounding a flagellum approx. 300[60]
Ciliophora Cilia bearers Ciliates Presence of multiple cilia and a cytostome. approx. 4,500[64]
Cryptista Hidden[16] Defined by molecular phylogeny, flat cristae.[59] 246[63][59]
Dinoflagellata Whirling flagellates[16] Dinoflagellates Biflagellates with a transverse ribbon-like flagellum with multiple waves beating to the cell’s left and a longitudinal flagellum beating posteriorly with only one or few waves.[59] 2,957 extant
955 fossil[63]
Endomyxa Within mucus[16][65] Defined by molecular phylogeny,[59] typically plasmodial endoparasites of other eukaryotes.[65]
Eolouka
(paraphyletic) 		Early groove[66] Heterotrophic biflagellates with ventral feeding groove.[66] 23
Euglenozoa True eye animals Biflagellates, one of the two cilia inserted into an apical or subapical pocket, unique ciliary configuration.[59] 2,037 extant
20 fossil[63]
Ochrophyta,
Heterokontophyta 		Ochre plants, heterokont plants Heterokont algae, stramenochromes, ochrophytes, heterokontophytes Biflagellates with tripartite mastigonemes, chloroplasts with four membranes and chlorophylls a and c, tubular cristae.[59] 21,052 extant
2,262 fossil[63]
Haptista Fasten[16] Thin microtubule-based appendages for feeding (haptonema in haptophytes, axopodia in centrohelids), complex mineralized scales.[59] 517 extant
1,205 fossil[63]
Hemimastigophora Incomplete or atypical flagellates[67] Hemimastigotes[68] Ellipsoid or vermiform phagotrophs, two slightly spiraling rows of around 12 cilia each, thecal plates below the membrane supported by microtubules and rotationally symmetrical, tubular and saccular cristae.[59][67] 10[69]
Malawimonada Malawimonas-like organisms Malawimonads Small free-living bicilates with two kinetosomes, one or two vanes in posterior cilium. 3[70]
Metamonada Middle monads Metamonads Anaerobic or microaerophilic, some without mitochondria; four kinetosomes per kinetid
Opisthosporidia
(often considered fungi) 		Opisthokont spores[71] Parasites with chitinous spores and extrusive host-invasion apparatus
Percolozoa Percolomonas-like animals Complex life cycle containing amoebae, flagellates and cysts.[59]
Perkinsozoa Perkinsus-like animals Perkinsozoans, perkinsids Parasitic biflagellates, incomplete apical complex, formation of zoosporangia or undifferentiated cells via a hypha-like tube.[59] 26
Provora Devouring voracious protists[72] Defined by molecular phylogeny, free-living eukaryovorous heterotrophic biflagellates with ventral groove and extrusomes.[72] 7[72]
Pseudofungi False fungi Defined by molecular phylogeny, phagotrophic heterokonts with a helical ciliary transition zone.[73] over 1,200[74]
Retaria Reticulopodia-bearing organisms[65] Feeding by reticulopodia (or axopodia) typically projected through various types of skeleton, closed mitosis.[75] 10,000 extant
50,000 fossil
Sulcozoa
(paraphyletic) 		Groove-bearing animals[66] Aerobic flagellates (none, 1, 2 or 4 flagella) with dorsal semi-rigid pellicle of one or two submembrane dense layers, ventral feeding groove, branching ventral pseudopodia, typically filose.[66] 40+
Telonemia Telonema-like organisms[76] Telonemids[77] Phagotrophic pyriform biflagellates with a unique complex cytoskeleton, tubular cristae, tripartite mastigonemes, cortical alveoli.[76][77] 7
Total: 26, but see below.

The number of protist phyla varies greatly from one classification to the next. The Catalogue of Life includes Rhodophyta and Glaucophyta in kingdom Plantae,[57] but other systems consider these phyla part of Protista.[78] In addition, less popular classification schemes unite Ochrophyta and Pseudofungi under one phylum, Gyrista, and all alveolates except ciliates in one phylum Myzozoa, later lowered in rank and included in a paraphyletic phylum Miozoa.[58] Even within a phylum, other phylum-level ranks appear, such as the case of Bacillariophyta (diatoms) within Ochrophyta. These differences became irrelevant after the adoption of a cladistic approach by the ISP, where taxonomic ranks are excluded from the classifications after being considered superfluous and unstable. Many authors prefer this usage, which lead to the Chromista-Protozoa scheme becoming obsolete.[59]

بئڪٽيريا

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو بئڪٽيريا

Currently there are 41 bacterial phyla (not including "Cyanobacteria") that have been validly published according to the Bacteriological Code[79]

  1. Abditibacteriota
  2. Acidobacteriota, phenotypically diverse and mostly uncultured
  3. Actinomycetota, High-G+C Gram positive species
  4. Aquificota, deep-branching
  5. Armatimonadota
  6. Atribacterota
  7. Bacillota, Low-G+C Gram positive species, such as the spore-formers Bacilli (aerobic) and Clostridia (anaerobic)
  8. Bacteroidota
  9. Balneolota
  10. Bdellovibrionota
  11. Caldisericota, formerly candidate division OP5, Caldisericum exile is the sole representative
  12. Calditrichota
  13. Campylobacterota
  14. Chlamydiota
  15. Chlorobiota, green sulphur bacteria
  16. Chloroflexota, green non-sulphur bacteria
  17. Chrysiogenota, only 3 genera (Chrysiogenes arsenatis, Desulfurispira natronophila, Desulfurispirillum alkaliphilum)
  18. Coprothermobacterota
  19. Deferribacterota
  20. Deinococcota, Deinococcus radiodurans and Thermus aquaticus are "commonly known" species of this phyla
  21. Dictyoglomota
  22. Elusimicrobiota, formerly candidate division Thermite Group 1
  23. Fibrobacterota
  24. Fusobacteriota
  25. Gemmatimonadota
  26. Ignavibacteriota
  27. Kiritimatiellota
  28. Lentisphaerota, formerly clade VadinBE97
  29. Mycoplasmatota, notable genus: Mycoplasma
  30. Myxococcota
  31. Nitrospinota
  32. Nitrospirota
  33. Planctomycetota
  34. Pseudomonadota, the most well-known phylum, containing species such as Escherichia coli or Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  35. Rhodothermota
  36. Spirochaetota, species include Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease
  37. Synergistota
  38. Thermodesulfobacteriota
  39. Thermomicrobiota
  40. Thermotogota, deep-branching
  41. Verrucomicrobiota

آرڪيا

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو آرڪيئا

Currently there are 2 phyla that have been validly published according to the Bacteriological Code[79]

  1. Nitrososphaerota
  2. Thermoproteota, second most common archaeal phylum

Other phyla that have been proposed, but not validly named, include:

  1. "Euryarchaeota", most common archaeal phylum
  2. "Korarchaeota"
  3. "Nanoarchaeota", ultra-small symbiotes, single known species

پڻ ڏسو

[سنواريو]

باب:حياتيات

ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا

[سنواريو]
Wikispecies has information related to:
Search Wiktionary Phylum جي لغوي معنائن جي لاءِ وڪي لغت ۾ ڏسو

سانچو:Taxonomic ranks سانچو:Life on Earth

حوالا

[سنواريو]
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 McNeill, J., ed (2012). International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code), Adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July 2011 (electronic ed.). International Association for Plant Taxonomy. http://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/main.php?page=art3. Retrieved 2017-05-14. 
  2. ↑ "Life sciences". The American Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (third ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2005. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/phylum. Retrieved 2008-10-04. "Phyla in the plant kingdom are frequently called divisions." 
  3. ↑ Berg, Linda R. (2 March 2007). Introductory Botany: Plants, People, and the Environment (2 ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 15. ISBN 9780534466695. https://books.google.com/books?id=I71WWH9ZmfsC&pg=PA15. Retrieved 2012-07-23. 
  4. ↑ Valentine 20048.
  5. ↑ Haeckel, Ernst (1866) (de ۾). Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. 1. Berlin, (Germany): G. Reimer. pp. 28–29. https://archive.org/details/generellemorphol01haec. 
  6. ↑ Naik, V. N. (1984). Taxonomy of Angiosperms. Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 27. ISBN 9780074517888. https://books.google.com/books?id=GanmtXAyU0gC. 
  7. ↑ "Defining phyla: evolutionary pathways to metazoan body plans". Evolution and Development 3: 432–442. 2001. http://si-pddr.si.edu/jspui/bitstream/10088/7403/1/Collins_Valentine_EvDev2001.pdf. Retrieved 5 March 2013. 
  8. ↑ Valentine, James W. (2004). On the Origin of Phyla. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-226-84548-7. "Classifications of organisms in hierarchical systems were in use by the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Usually, organisms were grouped according to their morphological similarities as perceived by those early workers, and those groups were then grouped according to their similarities, and so on, to form a hierarchy." 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Budd, G. E.; Jensen, S. (May 2000). "A critical reappraisal of the fossil record of the bilaterian phyla". Biological Reviews 75 (2): 253–295. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1999.tb00046.x. PMID 10881389. http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S000632310000548X. Retrieved 26 May 2007. 
  10. ↑ Rouse, G. W. (2001). "A cladistic analysis of Siboglinidae Caullery, 1914 (Polychaeta, Annelida): formerly the phyla Pogonophora and Vestimentifera". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 132 (1): 55–80. doi:10.1006/zjls.2000.0263. 
  11. ↑ "Origin of the Mesozoa inferred from 18S rRNA gene sequences". Molecular Biology and Evolution 13 (8): 1128–32. October 1996. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025675. PMID 8865666. 
  12. ↑ Budd, G. E. (September 1998). "Arthropod body-plan evolution in the Cambrian with an example from anomalocaridid muscle". Lethaia 31 (3): 197–210. doi:10.1111/j.1502-3931.1998.tb00508.x. 
  13. ↑ Briggs, D. E. G.; Fortey, R. A. (2005). "Wonderful strife: systematics, stem groups, and the phylogenetic signal of the Cambrian radiation". Paleobiology 31 (2 (Suppl)): 94–112. doi:10.1666/0094-8373(2005)031[0094:WSSSGA]2.0.CO;2. 
  14. ↑ Zhang, Zhi-Qiang (2013-08-30). "Animal biodiversity: An update of classification and diversity in 2013. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness (Addenda 2013)". Zootaxa 3703 (1): 5. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.3. https://biotaxa.org/Zootaxa/article/download/zootaxa.3703.1.3/4273. 
  15. ↑ Felder, Darryl L.; Camp, David K. (2009). Gulf of Mexico Origin, Waters, and Biota: Biodiversity. Texas A&M University Press. p. 1111. ISBN 978-1-60344-269-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=CphA8hiwaFIC&pg=RA1-PA1111. 
  16. ↑ 16.00 16.01 16.02 16.03 16.04 16.05 16.06 16.07 16.08 16.09 16.10 16.11 16.12 16.13 16.14 16.15 16.16 16.17 16.18 16.19 16.20 16.21 16.22 16.23 16.24 16.25 16.26 16.27 16.28 16.29 16.30 16.31 16.32 16.33 16.34 16.35 16.36 16.37 16.38 Margulis, Lynn; Chapman, Michael J. (2009). Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth (4th corrected ed.). London: Academic Press. ISBN 9780123736215. https://books.google.com/books?id=9IWaqAOGyt4C. 
  17. ↑ 17.00 17.01 17.02 17.03 17.04 17.05 17.06 17.07 17.08 17.09 17.10 Zhang, Zhi-Qiang (2013-08-30). "Animal biodiversity: An update of classification and diversity in 2013. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness (Addenda 2013)". Zootaxa 3703 (1): 5. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.3. https://biotaxa.org/Zootaxa/article/download/zootaxa.3703.1.3/4273. 
  18. ↑ Margulis, Lynn; Chapman, Michael J. (2009). Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth (4th corrected ed.). London: Academic Press. ISBN 9780123736215. https://books.google.com/books?id=9IWaqAOGyt4C. 
  19. ↑ Feldkamp, S. (2002) Modern Biology. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, USA. (pp. 725)
  20. ↑ Han, Jian; Morris, Simon Conway; Ou, Qiang; Shu, Degan; Huang, Hai (2017). "Meiofaunal deuterostomes from the basal Cambrian of Shaanxi (China)" (en ۾). Nature 542 (7640): 228–231. doi:10.1038/nature21072. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 28135722. Bibcode: 2017Natur.542..228H. https://www.nature.com/articles/nature21072. 
  21. ↑ Liu, Yunhuan; Carlisle, Emily; Zhang, Huaqiao; Yang, Ben; Steiner, Michael; Shao, Tiequan; Duan, Baichuan; Marone, Federica et al. (2022-08-17). "Saccorhytus is an early ecdysozoan and not the earliest deuterostome" (en ۾). Nature 609 (7927): 541–546. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05107-z. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 35978194. Bibcode: 2022Natur.609..541L. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05107-z. 
  22. ↑ Liu, Yunhuan; Carlisle, Emily; Zhang, Huaqiao; Yang, Ben; Steiner, Michael; Shao, Tiequan; Duan, Baichuan; Marone, Federica et al. (2022-08-17). "Saccorhytus is an early ecdysozoan and not the earliest deuterostome" (en ۾). Nature 609 (7927): 541–546. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05107-z. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 35978194. Bibcode: 2022Natur.609..541L. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05107-z. 
  23. ↑ Cannon, J.T.; Vellutini, B.C.; Smith, J.; Ronquist, F.; Jondelius, U.; Hejnol, A. (4 February 2016). "Xenacoelomorpha is the sister group to Nephrozoa". Nature 530 (7588): 89–93. doi:10.1038/nature16520. PMID 26842059. Bibcode: 2016Natur.530...89C. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:nrm:diva-1844. 
  24. ↑ Cavalier-Smith, Thomas (22 June 2004). "Only Six Kingdoms of Life". Proceedings: Biological Sciences 271 (1545): 1251–1262. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2705. PMID 15306349. 
  25. ↑ Mauseth 2012514, 517.
  26. ↑ Cronquist, A.; A. Takhtajan; W. Zimmermann (April 1966). "On the higher taxa of Embryobionta". Taxon 15 (4): 129–134. doi:10.2307/1217531. 
  27. ↑ Chase, Mark W.; Reveal, James L., "A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III", Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society (2): 122–127, doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.x  Unknown parameter |name-list-style= ignored (مدد); Unknown parameter |doi-access= ignored (مدد)
  28. ↑ Cavalier-Smith, Thomas (22 June 2004). "Only Six Kingdoms of Life". Proceedings: Biological Sciences 271 (1545): 1251–1262. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2705. PMID 15306349. 
  29. ↑ Mauseth, James D. (2012). Botany : An Introduction to Plant Biology (5th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1-4496-6580-7.  p. 489
  30. ↑ Mauseth, James D. (2012). Botany : An Introduction to Plant Biology (5th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1-4496-6580-7.  p. 489
  31. ↑ Mauseth 2012540.
  32. ↑ Mauseth 2012542.
  33. ↑ Mauseth 2012543.
  34. ↑ Mauseth 2012509.
  35. ↑ Crandall-Stotler, Barbara; Stotler, Raymond E. (2000). "Morphology and classification of the Marchantiophyta". Bryophyte Biology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-521-66097-6. 
  36. ↑ Mauseth, James D. (2012). Botany : An Introduction to Plant Biology (5th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1-4496-6580-7.  p. 489
  37. ↑ Cronquist, A.; A. Takhtajan; W. Zimmermann (April 1966). "On the higher taxa of Embryobionta". Taxon 15 (4): 129–134. doi:10.2307/1217531. 
  38. ↑ Mauseth 2012535.
  39. ↑ Wyatt, T.; Wösten, H.; Dijksterhuis, J. (2013). "Advances in Applied Microbiology Chapter 2 - Fungal Spores for Dispersion in Space and Time". Advances in Applied Microbiology 85: 43–91. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-407672-3.00002-2. PMID 23942148. 
  40. ↑ "Classifications of Fungi | Boundless Biology". courses.lumenlearning.com. حاصل ڪيل 2019-05-05. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 "Archaeal Genetics | Boundless Microbiology". courses.lumenlearning.com. 
  42. ↑ Holt, Jack R.; Iudica, Carlos A. "Blastocladiomycota". Diversity of Life. Susquehanna University. حاصل ڪيل 29 December 2016. 
  43. ↑ Holt, Jack R.; Iudica, Carlos A. "Chytridiomycota". Diversity of Life. Susquehanna University. حاصل ڪيل 29 December 2016. 
  44. ↑ "Chytridiomycota | phylum of fungi". Encyclopedia Britannica. حاصل ڪيل 2019-05-05. 
  45. ↑ McConnaughey, M (2014). Physical Chemical Properties of Fungi. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-801238-3.05231-4. ISBN 9780128012383. 
  46. ↑ Taylor, Thomas; Krings, Michael; Taylor, Edith (2015). "Fossil Fungi Chapter 4 - Chytridiomycota". Fossil Fungi: 41–67. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-387731-4.00004-9. 
  47. ↑ Holt, Jack R.; Iudica, Carlos A. "Microsporidia". Diversity of Life. Susquehanna University. حاصل ڪيل 29 December 2016. 
  48. ↑ Holt, Jack R.; Iudica, Carlos A. "Neocallimastigomycota". Diversity of Life. Susquehanna University. حاصل ڪيل 29 December 2016. 
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 "Types of Fungi". BiologyWise. حاصل ڪيل 2019-05-05. 
  50. ↑ Wang, Xuewei; Liu, Xingzhong; Groenewald, Johannes Z. (2017). "Phylogeny of anaerobic fungi (phylum Neocallimastigomycota), with contributions from yak in China". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 110 (1): 87–103. doi:10.1007/s10482-016-0779-1. PMID 27734254. 
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 "A higher-level phylogenetic classification of the Fungi". Mycological Research 111 (Pt 5): 509–47. May 2007. doi:10.1016/j.mycres.2007.03.004. PMID 17572334. http://www.clarku.edu/faculty/dhibbett/AFTOL/documents/AFTOL%20class%20mss%2023,%2024/AFTOL%20CLASS%20MS%20resub.pdf. 
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Ruggiero, Michael A.; Gordon, Dennis P.; Orrell, Thomas M.; Bailly, Nicholas; Bourgoin, Thierry; Brusca, Richard C.; Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Guiry, Michael D. et al. (29 April 2015). "A Higher Level Classification of All Living Organisms". PLOS ONE 10 (6): e0119248. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0119248. PMID 25923521. Bibcode: 2015PLoSO..1019248R. 
  53. ↑ White, Merlin M.; James, Timothy Y.; O'Donnell, Kerry; Cafaro, Matías J.; Tanabe, Yuuhiko; Sugiyama, Junta (Nov–Dec 2006). "Phylogeny of the Zygomycota Based on Nuclear Ribosomal Sequence Data". Mycologia 98 (6): 872–884. doi:10.1080/15572536.2006.11832617. PMID 17486964. 
  54. ↑ Hagen, Joel B. (January 2012). "Five Kingdoms, More or Less: Robert Whittaker and the Broad Classification of Organisms". BioScience 62 (1): 67–74. doi:10.1525/bio.2012.62.1.11. 
  55. ↑ Blackwell, Will H.; Powell, Martha J. (June 1999). "Reconciling Kingdoms with Codes of Nomenclature: Is It Necessary?". Systematic Biology 48 (2): 406–412. doi:10.1080/106351599260382. PMID 12066717. 
  56. ↑ Davis, R. A. "Kingdom PROTISTA". College of Mount St. Joseph. حاصل ڪيل 28 December 2016. 
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 "Taxonomic tree". Catalogue of Life. وقت 1 August 2021 تي اصل کان آرڪائيو ٿيل. حاصل ڪيل 28 December 2016.  Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (مدد)
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 "Ciliary transition zone evolution and the root of the eukaryote tree: implications for opisthokont origin and classification of kingdoms Protozoa, Plantae, and Fungi". Protoplasma 259: 487–593. 2022. doi:10.1007/s00709-021-01665-7. 
  59. ↑ 59.00 59.01 59.02 59.03 59.04 59.05 59.06 59.07 59.08 59.09 59.10 59.11 59.12 59.13 59.14 59.15 "Revisions to the Classification, Nomenclature, and Diversity of Eukaryotes". Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 66 (1): 4–119. 2019. doi:10.1111/jeu.12691. PMID 30257078. 
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 "CBOL protist working group: barcoding eukaryotic richness beyond the animal, plant, and fungal kingdoms". PLOS Biology 10 (11): e1001419. November 6, 2012. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001419. PMID 23139639. 
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 "Apicomplexa". Handbook of the Protists. Cham: Springer. 2016. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-32669-6_20-1. 
  62. ↑ سانچو:Cite Q
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 63.2 63.3 63.4 63.5 سانچو:Cite Q
  64. ↑ Foissner, W., ed (2009) (en ۾). Protist Diversity and Geographical Distribution. Topics in Biodiversity and Conservation. 8. Springer Netherlands. pp. 111. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-2801-3. ISBN 9789048128006. https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9789048128006. 
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 65.2 سانچو:Cite Q
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 66.2 66.3 "Early evolution of eukaryote feeding modes, cell structural diversity, and classification of the protozoan phyla Loukozoa, Sulcozoa, and Choanozoa". European Journal of Protistology 49 (2): 115–178. 2013. doi:10.1016/j.ejop.2012.06.001. PMID 23085100. 
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 سانچو:Cite Q
  68. ↑ سانچو:Cite Q
  69. ↑ Shɨshkin, Yegor (2022). "Spironematella terricola comb. n. and Spironematella goodeyi comb. n. (Hemimastigida = Hemimastigea = Hemimastigophora) for Spironema terricola and Spironema goodeyi with diagnoses of the genus and family Spironematellidae amended". Zootaxa 5128 (2): 295–297. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.5128.2.8. PMID 36101172. 
  70. ↑ "Description of Imasa heleensis, gen. nov., sp. nov. (Imasidae, fam. nov.), a Deep-Branching Marine Malawimonad and Possible Key Taxon in Understanding Early Eukaryotic Evolution". Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 68: e12837. December 2020. doi:10.1111/jeu.12837. 
  71. ↑ Karpov, Sergey; Mamkaeva, Maria A.; Aleoshin, Vladimir; Nassonova, Elena; Lilje, Osu; Gleason, Frank H. (2014-01-01). "Morphology, phylogeny, and ecology of the aphelids (Aphelidea, Opisthokonta) and proposal for the new superphylum Opisthosporidia". Frontiers in Microbiology 5: 112. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2014.00112. PMID 24734027. 
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 72.2 سانچو:Cite Q
  73. ↑ سانچو:Cite Q
  74. ↑ "Oomycetes". Current Biology 28 (15): R812–R813. 2018. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.05.062. https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(18)30698-5. 
  75. ↑ سانچو:Cite Q
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 Shalchian-Tabrizi, K; Eikrem, W; Klaveness, D; Vaulot, D; Minge, M.A; Le Gall, F; Romari, K; Throndsen, J et al. (28 April 2006). "Telonemia, a new protist phylum with affinity to chromist lineages". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 273 (1595): 1833–1842. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3515. PMID 16790418. 
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 Tikhonenkov, Denis V.; Jamy, Mahwash; Borodina, Anastasia S.; Belyaev, Artem O.; Zagumyonnyi, Dmitry G.; Prokina, Kristina I.; Mylnikov, Alexander P.; Burki, Fabien et al. (2022). "On the origin of TSAR: morphology, diversity and phylogeny of Telonemia". Open Biology (The Royal Society) 12 (3). doi:10.1098/rsob.210325. ISSN 2046-2441. PMID 35291881. 
  78. ↑ Corliss, John O. (1984). "The Kingdom Protista and its 45 Phyla". BioSystems 17 (2): 87–176. doi:10.1016/0303-2647(84)90003-0. PMID 6395918. 
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 Euzéby JP, Parte AC. "Names of phyla". List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN). حاصل ڪيل April 3, 2022. 


حوالي جي چڪ: "lower-alpha" نالي جي حوالن جي لاءِ ٽيگ <ref> آهن، پر لاڳاپيل ٽيگ <references group="lower-alpha"/> نہ مليو

"https://sd.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=فائلم&oldid=306792" تان ورتل