مواد ڏانھن هلو

ھوائي جهاز

ڳنڍڻن کي سنواريو
کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
Airplane

هوائي جهاز (Aeroplane)، غير رسمي طور تي صرف "جهاز" (Plane)، هڪ مقرر ٿيل پرن واري (Fixed-wing) هوائي سواري آهي، جيڪي جيٽ انجن، پروپيلر يا راڪيٽ انجن مان پيدا ڪيل واء جي زور سان اڳتي وڌائي ويندي آهي.[1] هوائي جهاز مختلف سائزن، شڪلن ۽ پرن جي ترتيبن ۾ ايندا آهن. هوائي جهازن جي استعمال جي وسيع دائري ۾ تفريح، سامان ۽ ماڻهن جي نقل و حمل، فوجي استعمال ۽ تحقيقي آپريشن شامل آهن.

دنيا ۾ تجارتي هوائي جهاز هر سال هوائي سوارين تي چار ارب کان وڌيڪ مسافرن کي منتقل ڪري ٿو[2] ۽ هر سال 200 ارب ٽن-ڪلوميٽر کان وڌيڪ سامان منتقل ڪري ٿو، جيڪو دنيا جي ڪل سامان جي منتقلي جي هڪ سيڪڙي کان گهٽ آهي.[3] گھڻا هوائي جهاز جهاز تي پائلٽ طرفان اڏايا ويندا آهن، پر ڪجهه کي، جهڙوڪ ڊرونز کي، ريموٽ يا ڪمپيوٽر پاران ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ لاءِ ٺاهيو ويو آهي.

رائيٽ ڀائرن (Wright Brothers) سال 1903ع ۾ پهريون هوائي جهاز ايجاد ڪيو ۽ اڏايو. "پهرين پائيدار ۽ ڪنٽرول ٿيل هوا کان ڳري طاقت واري پرواز" جي طور تي تسليم ڪيو ويو. اهي جارج ڪيلي جي ڪمن تي تعمير ڪيا ويا، جيڪا سال 1799ع کان شروع ٿيا هئا، جڏهن هن جديد هوائي جهاز جو تصور پيش ڪيو (پوء ماڊل ٺاهيا ۽ اڏايا) ۽ ڪامياب مسافر کڻندڙ گلائڊر ۽ انساني هوائي جهاز جي جرمن علمبردار اوٽو لليينٿل جو ڪم، جنهن سال 1867 ۽ 1896ع جي وچ ۾ پڻ هوا کان ڳري پرواز جو مطالعو ڪيو. [4] سال 1891ع ۾ لليينٿل جي پرواز جي ڪوششن کي انساني پرواز جي شروعات طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو.[5] پهرين مهاڀاري جنگ ۾ ان جي محدود استعمال کان پوءِ، هوائي جهاز ٽيڪنالاجي ترقي ڪندي رهي. ٻئي مهاڀاري جنگ جي سڀني وڏين جنگين ۾، هوائي جهازن جي موجودگي هئي.

پهريون جيٽ جهاز 1939 ۾ جرمن "هينڪل هي-178" هو. پهريون جيٽ جهاز "ڊي هاويلينڊ ڪاميٽ" سال1952ع ۾ متعارف ڪرايو ويو. بوئنگ 707، پهريون وڏي پيماني تي ڪامياب ڪمرشل جيٽ، سال 1958 کان 2019 ع تائين (60 سالن کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين) ڪمرشل سروس ۾ هو.[6]

اشتقاق ۽ استعمال

[سنواريو]

انگريزي ۾ پهرين ڀيرو تصديق ٿيل 19هين صدي جي آخر ۾، پهرين مسلسل طاقتور پرواز کان اڳ، لفظ ايروپلين (airplane) فرانسيسي لفظ "ايروپلين (aéroplane) مان نڪتل آهي. جيڪو يوناني لفظ "اير" (ἀήρ، واء) ۽ يا ته لاطيني لفظ "پلينس" (planus، سطح) يا يوناني "پلانوس" (πλάνος، ڦرڻ) مان نڪتل آهي. لفظ "ايروپلين" (Aéroplane) اصل ۾ صرف ونگ ڏانهن اشارو ڪيو ويو. ڇاڪاڻ ته اهو هڪ جهاز آهي جيڪو هوا ذريعي هلندو آهي. سائنيدوخئ (synecdoche) جي مثال ۾، پرن لاءِ لفظ سڄي جهاز ڏانهن اشارو ڪرڻ لاءِ آيو.

آمريڪا ۽ ڪينيڊا ۾، اصطلاح "هوائي جهاز" طاقتور مقرر ٿيل پرن واري جهاز لاءِ استعمال ٿيندو آهي. برطانيه ۽ آئرلينڊ ۽ دولت مشترڪه جي اڪثريت ۾، اصطلاح "هوائي جهاز" (ˈɛərəpleɪn) عام طور تي انهن جهازن تي لاڳو ٿئي ٿو. آڪسفورڊ انگريزي ڊڪشنري جي مطابق

"سال 1916ع ۾ نيشنل ايڊوائزري ڪميٽي فار ايرووناٽڪس پاران اختيار ڪرڻ کان پوءِ هوائي جهاز (aeroplane) معياري آمريڪي اصطلاح (Airplane جي جاءِ تي) بڻجي ويو."[7]

تاريخ

[سنواريو]
لئ برس ۽ هنن جو گلائڊر، "البتروس"، 1868ع
اوٽو لليٿال سال 1895ع ۾ برلن مٿان اڏام جي دوران

قديم دور جون ڪيتريون ئي ڪهاڻيون اڏام سان لاڳاپيل آهن. جيئن ته يوناني ڏند ڪٿا "اڪارس ۽ ڊائيڊالس" ۽ قديم هندستاني رزميه "ويمانا" ۾. يونان ۾ تقريباً 400 ق.م. آرڪيٽاس کي پهريون مصنوعي، خود هلائيندڙ اڏامندڙ ڊوائيس، هڪ پکي جي شڪل وارو ماڊل جيڪو شايد ٻاڦ جي جيٽ ذريعي هلائي ٿو، ڊزائين ۽ تعمير ڪرڻ لاءِ مشهور هو، چيو ويندو آهي ته اهو 200 ميٽر (660 فوٽ) اڏاميو هو. هي مشين شايد ان جي اڏام لاءِ معلق ڪئي وئي هجي.

گلائڊرز سان ڪجهه ابتدائي رڪارڊ ٿيل ڪوششون 9هين صدي جي اندلس ۽ عربي ٻولي جي شاعر عباس بن فرناس ۽ 11هين صدي جي انگريزي راهب مالمسبري جي ايلمر پاران ڪيون ويون هيون. ٻنهي تجربن ۾ پائلٽ زخمي ٿيا. ليونارڊو ڊي ونچي پنهنجي "ڪوڊيڪس آن دي فلائيٽ آف برڊز" (1502ع) ۾ پکين جي پرن جي ڊيزائن تي تحقيق ڪئي ۽ پهريون ڀيرو ماس جي مرڪز ۽ اڏامندڙ پکين جي دٻاءُ جي مرڪز جي وچ ۾ فرق کي نوٽ ڪندي هڪ انسان سان هلندڙ جهاز ٺاهيو.

سال 1799ع ۾، جارج ڪيلي جديد هوائي جهاز جو تصور، هڪ فڪسڊ ونگ فلائنگ مشين جي طور تي جنهن ۾ لفٽ، پروپلشن ۽ ڪنٽرول لاءِ الڳ الڳ نظام هئا، پيش ڪيو. ڪيلي 1803ع ۾ فڪسڊ ونگ جهاز جا ماڊل ٺاهي ۽ اڏائي رهيو هو ۽ هن 1853ع ۾ هڪ ڪامياب مسافر کڻندڙ گلائڊر ٺاهيو. 1856ع ۾، فرانسيسي جين ميري لي برس پهرين طاقتور پرواز ڪئي. پنهنجي گلائڊر، "لا باتروس لا آرٽيفيشيئل" (L'Albatros artificiel) کي هڪ گهوڙي سان ساحل تي ڇڪيو. پوءِ روسي اليگزينڊر ايف. موزائيسڪي پڻ ڪجهه جديد ڊيزائن ٺاهيا. 1883ع ۾، آمريڪي جان جي. مونٽگمري هڪ گلائڊر ۾ ڪنٽرول ٿيل پرواز ڪئي. ان وقت ساڳين پروازن ڪندڙ ٻيا هوائي جهاز اوٽو لليينٿل، پرسي پِلچر ۽ آڪٽيو چانوٽ هئا.

سر هيرام ميڪسم هڪ جهاز ٺاهيو جنهن جو وزن، 110 فوٽ (34 ميٽر) جي پنن جي پکيڙ سان، 3.5 ٽن هو جيڪو ٻن 360 هارس پاور (270 ڪلوواٽ) اسٽيم انجنن سان طاقتور هو جيڪي ٻن پروپيلرن کي هلائي رهيا هئا. 1894ع ۾، سندس مشين کي اوور هيڊ ريل سان آزمايو ويو ته جيئن ان کي اڀرڻ کان روڪي سگهجي. ٽيسٽ ڏيکاريو ته ان ۾ اڏامڻ لاءِ ڪافي لفٽ هئي، پر جهاز بي قابو هو ۽ اهو فرض ڪيو ويو آهي، ته ميڪسم کي اهو احساس ٿيو ڇاڪاڻ ته هن پوء ان تي ڪم ڇڏي ڏنو. *

سال 1867 ۽ 1896ع جي وچ ۾، انساني هوائي جهاز جي جرمن علمبردار اوٽو لليينٿل هوا کان ڳري پرواز تيار ڪئي. هو پهريون شخص هو جنهن چڱي طرح دستاويزي، بار بار، ڪامياب گلائڊنگ پروازون ڪيون. لليينٿل جي ڪم هن کي جديد ونگ جي تصور کي ترقي ڪرڻ جو سبب بڻيو. سال 1891ع ۾ سندس پرواز جي ڪوششن کي انساني پرواز جي شروعات طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو. "لليينٿل نارملسيگيلاپارٽ" کي سيريز جي پيداوار ۾ پهريون هوائي جهاز سمجهيو ويندو آهي ۽ سندس ڪم رائٽ ڀائرن کي تمام گهڻو متاثر ڪيو. 1890ع جي ڏهاڪي ۾، لارنس هارگريو پرن جي بناوتن تي تحقيق ڪئي ۽ هڪ باڪس ڪائيٽ تيار ڪئي جيڪا انسان جو وزن کڻندي هئي. سندس باڪس ڪائيٽ ڊيزائن کي وڏي پيماني تي اختيار ڪيو ويو، جيتوڻيڪ هن هڪ قسم جو روٽري هوائي جهاز انجن پڻ تيار ڪيو، پر هن هڪ طاقتور فڪسڊ ونگ هوائي جهاز نه ٺاهيو ۽ نه ئي اڏايو.

هوائي جهاز (انگريزي: Aircraft) هڪ اهڙو اُڏامندڙ مشيني اوزار آهي جيڪو هوا ۾ پرن (Wings) جي مدد سان اڏامي سگهي ٿو. هوائي جهاز انسانن ۽ سامان جي تيز رفتار نقل و حمل لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي ۽ جديد ٽرانسپورٽ جو هڪ اهم حصو آهي. هوائي جهاز هوا جي قوت، انجڻ جي طاقت ۽ ايروڊائنامڪس جي اصولن تي ڪم ڪندو آهي.

هوائي جهاز جي ايجاد جو سهرو آمريڪي ڀائرن رائيٽ ڀائر (Wright brothers) جي سر تي آهي، جن 1903ع ۾ دنيا جي پهرين ڪنٽرول ٿيل طاقتور اڏام ڪاميابي سان ڪئي. ان کان پوءِ هوائي جهازن جي ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ تيزي سان ترقي ٿي ۽ اڄ اهي عالمي سفر جو اهم وسيلو بڻجي ويا آهن.

جوڙجڪ

[سنواريو]

عام طور تي هڪ هوائي جهاز هيٺين حصن تي مشتمل هوندو آهي:

  • پر (Wings) – جيڪي لفٽ پيدا ڪري جهاز کي هوا ۾ رکندا آهن.
  • جسم (Fuselage) – جهاز جو مرڪزي حصو جنهن ۾ مسافر يا سامان هوندو آهي.
  • پڇ (Tail) – جهاز جي توازن ۽ رخ کي ڪنٽرول ڪرڻ لاءِ.
  • انجڻ (Engine) – جهاز کي اڳتي وڌائڻ لاءِ زور فراهم ڪري ٿي.
  • لينڊنگ گيئر (Landing gear) – لهڻ ۽ اڏامڻ وقت زمين سان رابطي لاءِ.

ڪم ڪرڻ جو اصول

[سنواريو]

هوائي جهاز ايروڊائنامڪس جي اصولن تي ڪم ڪندو آهي. جڏهن جهاز تيز رفتاري سان اڳتي وڌندو آهي ته پرن جي شڪل سبب هوا جي وهڪري ۾ فرق پيدا ٿيندو آهي جنهن سان لفٽ پيدا ٿيندي آهي ۽ جهاز مٿي اڏامندو آهي.

قسمون

[سنواريو]

هوائي جهاز مختلف مقصدن لاءِ ٺاهيا ويندا آهن، جن ۾ شامل آهن:

  • مسافر بردار جهاز (Passenger aircraft)
  • فوجي جهاز (Military aircraft)
  • مال بردار جهاز (Cargo aircraft)
  • خانگي جهاز (Private aircraft)
  • تربيت لاءِ استعمال ٿيندڙ جهاز (Training aircraft)

استعمال

[سنواريو]

هوائي جهازن جا اهم استعمال هي آهن:

  • عالمي سفر ۽ سياحت
  • فوجي مقصد
  • امدادي ڪارروايون
  • سامان جي تيز ترسيل
  • سائنسي تحقيق

حفاظت

[سنواريو]

جديد هوائي جهازن ۾ جديد نيويگيشن سسٽم، خودڪار ڪنٽرول ۽ حفاظتي نظام شامل هوندا آهن، جنهن سبب هوائي سفر کي دنيا جي محفوظ ترين سفري طريقن مان هڪ سمجھيو وڃي ٿو.

تاريخ

[سنواريو]

Antecedents

[سنواريو]

Many stories from antiquity involve flight, such as the Greek legend of Icarus and Daedalus, and the Vimana in ancient Indian epics. Around 400 BC in Greece, Archytas was reputed to have designed and built the first artificial, self-propelled flying device, a bird-shaped model propelled by a jet of what was probably steam, said to have flown some 200 m[convert: bug, ask for help].[8][9] This machine may have been suspended for its flight.[10][11]

Some of the earliest recorded attempts with gliders were those by the 9th-century Andalusian and Arabic-language poet Abbas ibn Firnas and the 11th-century English monk Eilmer of Malmesbury; both experiments injured their pilots.[12] Leonardo da Vinci researched the wing design of birds and designed a man-powered aircraft in his Codex on the Flight of Birds (1502), noting for the first time the distinction between the center of mass and the center of pressure of flying birds.

In 1799, George Cayley set forth the concept of the modern airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control.[13][14] Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 1803, and he built a successful passenger-carrying glider in 1853.[15] In 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, by having his glider "L'Albatros artificiel" pulled by a horse on a beach.[16] Then the Russian Alexander F. Mozhaisky also made some innovative designs. In 1883, the American John J. Montgomery made a controlled flight in a glider.[17] Other aviators who made similar flights at that time were Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, and Octave Chanute.

Sir Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-فٽ ([convert: bug, ask for help]) wingspan that was powered by two 360-ھارس-پاور (270 kW) steam engines driving two propellers. In 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it from rising. The test showed that it had enough lift to take off. The craft was uncontrollable and it is presumed that Maxim realized this because he subsequently abandoned work on it.[18]

Between 1867 and 1896, the German pioneer of human aviation Otto Lilienthal developed heavier-than-air flight. He was the first person to make well-documented, repeated, successful gliding flights. Lilienthal's work led to him developing the concept of the modern wing,[19][20] his flight attempts in 1891 are seen as the beginning of human flight,[21] the "Lilienthal Normalsegelapparat" is considered to be the first airplane in series production and his work heavily inspired the Wright brothers.[22]

In the 1890s, Lawrence Hargrave conducted research on wing structures and developed a box kite that lifted the weight of a man. His box kite designs were widely adopted. Although he also developed a type of rotary aircraft engine, he did not create and fly a powered fixed-wing aircraft.[23]

Early powered flights

[سنواريو]
Patent drawings of Clement Ader's Éole.

The Frenchman Clement Ader constructed his first of three flying machines in 1886, the Éole. It was a bat-like design run by a lightweight steam engine of his own invention, with four cylinders developing 20 ھارس پاور (15 kW), driving a four-blade propeller. The engine weighed no more than 4 kilograms per kilowatt (6.6 lb/hp). The wings had a span of 14 m[convert: bug, ask for help]. All-up weight was 300 kiloگرامs (660 lb). On 9 October 1890, Ader attempted to fly the Éole. Aviation historians give credit to this effort as a powered take-off and uncontrolled hop of approximately 50 m[convert: bug, ask for help] at a height of approximately 200 mm[convert: unknown unit].[24][25] Ader's two subsequent machines were not documented to have achieved flight.[26]

The Wright Flyer's first flight on 17 December 1903

The American Wright brothers's flights in 1903 are recognized by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the standard-setting and record-keeping body for aeronautics, as "the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight".[27] By 1905, the Wright Flyer III was capable of fully controllable, stable flight for substantial periods. The Wright brothers credited Otto Lilienthal as a major inspiration for their decision to pursue manned flight.

Santos-Dumont 14-bis, between 1906 and 1907

In 1906, the Brazilian Alberto Santos-Dumont made what was claimed to be the first airplane flight unassisted by catapult[28] and set the first world record recognized by the Aéro-Club de France by flying 220 m[convert: bug, ask for help] in less than 22 seconds.[29] This flight was also certified by the FAI.[30][31]

An early aircraft design that brought together the modern monoplane tractor configuration was the Blériot VIII design of 1908. It had movable tail surfaces controlling both yaw and pitch, a form of roll control supplied either by wing warping or by ailerons and controlled by its pilot with a joystick and rudder bar. It was an important predecessor of his later Blériot XI Channel-crossing aircraft of the summer of 1909.[32]

World War I served as a testbed for the use of the airplane as a weapon. Airplanes demonstrated their potential as mobile observation platforms, then proved themselves to be machines of war capable of causing casualties to the enemy. The earliest known aerial victory with a synchronized machine gun-armed fighter aircraft occurred in 1915, by German Luftstreitkräfte Leutnant Kurt Wintgens. Fighter aces appeared; the greatest (by number of Aerial Combat victories) was Manfred von Richthofen, also known as the Red Baron.

Following WWI, aircraft technology continued to develop. Alcock and Brown crossed the Atlantic non-stop for the first time in 1919. The first international commercial flights took place between the United States and Canada in 1919.[33]

North American P-51 Mustang, a World War II fighter aircraft

Airplanes had a presence in all the major battles of World War II. They were an essential component of the military strategies of the period, such as the German Blitzkrieg, The Battle of Britain, and the American and Japanese aircraft carrier campaigns of the Pacific War.

Development of jet aircraft

[سنواريو]

The first practical jet aircraft was the German Heinkel He 178, which was tested in 1939. In 1943, the Messerschmitt Me 262, the first operational jet fighter aircraft, went into service in the German Luftwaffe.

A American Airlines Boeing 737-800 landing at Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport in July 2024

The first jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet, was introduced in 1952. The Boeing 707, the first widely successful commercial jet, was in commercial service for more than 50 years, from 1958 to 2010. The Boeing 747 was the world's biggest passenger aircraft from 1970 until it was surpassed by the Airbus A380 in 2005.

The Concorde supersonic transport aircraft

Supersonic airliner flights, including those of the Concorde, have been limited to over-water flight at supersonic speed because of their sonic boom, which is prohibited over most populated land areas. The high cost of operation per passenger-mile and a deadly crash in 2000 induced the operators of the Concorde to remove it from service.[34][35]

Propulsion

[سنواريو]

Propeller

[سنواريو]
An Antonov An-2 biplane

An aircraft propeller, or airscrew, converts rotary motion from an engine or other power source, into a swirling slipstream which pushes the propeller forwards or backwards. It comprises a rotating power-driven hub, to which are attached two or more radial airfoil-section blades such that the whole assembly rotates about a longitudinal axis.[36] Three types of aviation engines used to power propellers include reciprocating engines (or piston engines), gas turbines, and electric motors. The amount of thrust a propeller creates is determined, in part, by its disk area—the area through which the blades rotate. The limitation on blade speed is the speed of sound; as when the blade tip exceeds the speed of sound, shock waves decrease propeller efficiency. The rpm required to generate a given tip speed is inversely proportional to the diameter of the propeller. The upper design speed limit for propeller-driven aircraft is Mach 0.6. Aircraft designed to go faster than that employ jet engines.[37]

Reciprocating engine

[سنواريو]

Reciprocating engines in aircraft have three main variants, radial, in-line and flat or horizontally opposed engine. The radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion engine configuration in which the cylinders "radiate" outward from a central crankcase like the spokes of a wheel and was commonly used for aircraft engines before gas turbine engines became predominant. An inline engine is a reciprocating engine with banks of cylinders, one behind another, rather than rows of cylinders, with each bank having any number of cylinders, but rarely more than six, and may be water-cooled. A flat engine is an internal combustion engine with horizontally opposed cylinders.

Gas turbine

[سنواريو]

A turboprop gas turbine engine consists of an intake, compressor, combustor, turbine, and a propelling nozzle, which provide power from a shaft through a reduction gearing to the propeller. The propelling nozzle provides a relatively small proportion of the thrust generated by a turboprop.

Electric motor

[سنواريو]
Solar Impulse 1, a solar-powered aircraft with electric motors.

An electric aircraft runs on electric motors with electricity coming from fuel cells, solar cells, ultracapacitors, power beaming,[38] or batteries. Currently, flying electric aircraft are mostly experimental prototypes, including manned and unmanned aerial vehicles, but there are some production models on the market.[39]

Jet

[سنواريو]

Jet aircraft are propelled by jet engines, which are used because the aerodynamic limitations of propellers do not apply to jet propulsion. These engines are much more powerful than a reciprocating engine for a given size or weight and are comparatively quiet and work well at higher altitude. Variants of the jet engine include the ramjet and the scramjet, which rely on high airspeed and intake geometry to compress the combustion air, prior to the introduction and ignition of fuel. Rocket motors provide thrust by burning a fuel with an oxidizer and expelling gas through a nozzle.

Turbofan

[سنواريو]

Most jet aircraft use turbofan jet engines, which employ a gas turbine to drive a ducted fan, which accelerates air around the turbine to provide thrust in addition to that which is accelerated through the turbine. The ratio of air passing around the turbine to that passing through is called the by-pass ratio.[40] They represent a compromise between turbojet (with no bypass) and turboprop forms of aircraft propulsion (primarily powered with bypass air).[41]

Subsonic aircraft, such as airliners, employ high by-pass jet engines for fuel efficiency. Supersonic aircraft, such as jet fighters, use low-bypass turbofans. However at supersonic speeds, the air entering the engine must be decelerated to a subsonic speed and then re-accelerated back to supersonic speeds after combustion. An afterburner may be used on combat aircraft to increase power for short periods of time by injecting fuel directly into the hot exhaust gases. Many jet aircraft also use thrust reversers to slow down after landing.[41]

Ramjet

[سنواريو]
Artist's concept of X-43A with scramjet attached to the underside

A ramjet is a form of jet engine that contains no major moving parts and can be particularly useful in applications requiring a small and simple engine for high-speed use, such as with missiles. Ramjets require forward motion before they can generate thrust and so are often used in conjunction with other forms of propulsion, or with an external means of achieving sufficient speed. The Lockheed D-21 was a Mach 3+ ramjet-powered reconnaissance drone that was launched from a parent aircraft. A ramjet uses the vehicle's forward motion to force air through the engine without resorting to turbines or vanes. Fuel is added and ignited, which heats and expands the air to provide thrust.[42]

Scramjet

[سنواريو]

A scramjet is a specialized ramjet that uses internal supersonic airflow to compress, combine with fuel, combust and accelerate the exhaust to provide thrust. The engine operates at supersonic speeds only. The NASA X-43, an experimental unmanned scramjet, set a world speed record in 2004 for a jet-powered aircraft with a speed of Mach 9.7, nearly 12,100 kilometers per hour (7,500 mph).[43]

Rocket

[سنواريو]
Bell X-1 in flight, 1947

Whereas jet aircraft use the atmosphere both as a source of oxidant and of mass to accelerate reactively behind the aircraft, rocket aircraft carry the oxidizer on board and accelerate the burned fuel and oxidizer backwards as the sole source of mass for reaction. Liquid fuel and oxidizer may be pumped into a combustion chamber or a solid fuel with oxidizer may burn in the fuel chamber. Whether liquid or solid-fueled, the hot gas is accelerated through a nozzle.[44]

In World War II, the Germans deployed the Me 163 Komet rocket-powered aircraft. The first plane to break the sound barrier in level flight was a rocket plane – the Bell X-1 in 1948. The North American X-15 broke many speed and altitude records in the 1960s and pioneered engineering concepts for later aircraft and spacecraft. Military transport aircraft may employ rocket-assisted take offs for short-field situations. Otherwise, rocket aircraft include spaceplanes, like SpaceShipTwo, for travel beyond the Earth's atmosphere and sport aircraft developed for the short-lived Rocket Racing League.

Design and manufacture

[سنواريو]
SR-71 at Lockheed Skunk Works
Assembly line of the SR-71 Blackbird at Skunk Works, Lockheed Martin's Advanced Development Programs (ADP).

Most airplanes are constructed by companies with the objective of producing them in quantity for customers. The design and planning process, including safety tests, can last up to four years for small turboprops or longer for larger planes.

During this process, the objectives and design specifications of the aircraft are established. First the construction company uses drawings and equations, simulations, wind tunnel tests and experience to predict the behavior of the aircraft. Computers are used by companies to draw, plan and do initial simulations of the aircraft. Small models and mockups of all or certain parts of the plane are then tested in wind tunnels to verify its aerodynamics.

When the design has passed through these processes, the company constructs a limited number of prototypes for testing on the ground. Representatives from an aviation governing agency often make a first flight. The flight tests continue until the aircraft has fulfilled all the requirements. Then, the governing public agency of aviation of the country authorizes the company to begin production.

In the United States, this agency is the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). In the European Union, European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA); in the United Kingdom it is the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA).[45] In Canada, the public agency in charge and authorizing the mass production of aircraft is Transport Canada's Civil Aviation Authority.[46]

When a part or component needs to be joined together by welding for virtually any aerospace or defense application, it must meet the most stringent and specific safety regulations and standards. Nadcap, or the National Aerospace and Defense Contractors Accreditation Program sets global requirements for quality, quality management and quality assurance for aerospace engineering.[47]

In the case of international sales, a license from the public agency of aviation or transport of the country where the aircraft is to be used is also necessary. For example, airplanes made by the European company Airbus need to be certified by the FAA to be flown in the United States, and airplanes made by U.S.-based Boeing need to be approved by the EASA to be flown in the European Union.[48]

An Airbus A321 on final assembly line 3 in the Airbus Hamburg-Finkenwerder plant.

Regulations have resulted in reduced noise from aircraft engines in response to increased noise pollution from growth in air traffic over urban areas near airports.[49]

Small planes can be designed and constructed by amateurs as homebuilts. Other homebuilt aircraft can be assembled using pre-manufactured kits of parts that can be assembled into a basic plane and must then be completed by the builder.[50]

Few companies produce planes on a large scale. However, the production of a plane for one company is a process that actually involves dozens, or even hundreds, of other companies and plants, that produce the parts that go into the plane. For example, one company can be responsible for the production of the landing gear, while another one is responsible for the radar. The production of such parts is not limited to the same city or country; in the case of large plane manufacturing companies, such parts can come from all over the world. The parts are sent to the main plant of the plane company, where the production line is located. In the case of large planes, production lines dedicated to the assembly of certain parts of the plane can exist, especially the wings and the fuselage.[51][52] When complete, a plane is rigorously inspected to search for imperfections and defects. After approval by inspectors, the plane is put through a series of flight tests to assure that all systems are working correctly and that the plane handles properly.[53] To meet a particular customer need, the airplane may be customised using components or packages of components provided by the manufacturer or the customer.[54]

Characteristics

[سنواريو]
Major components of an airplane.
An IAI Heron - an unmanned aerial vehicle with a twin-boom configuration

Airframe

[سنواريو]

The structural parts of a fixed-wing aircraft are called the airframe. The parts present can vary according to the aircraft's type and purpose. Early types were usually made of wood with fabric wing surfaces, When engines became available for powered flight around a hundred years ago, their mounts were made of metal. Then as speeds increased more and more parts became metal until by the end of WWII all-metal aircraft were common. In modern times, increasing use of composite materials has been made.

Typical structural parts include:

  • One or more large horizontal wings, often with an airfoil cross-section shape. The wing deflects air downward as the aircraft moves forward, generating lifting force to support it in flight. The wing also provides stability in roll to stop the aircraft from rolling to the left or right in steady flight.
The An-225 Mriya, which could carry a 250-tonne payload, had two vertical stabilizers.
  • A fuselage, a long, thin body, usually with tapered or rounded ends to make its shape aerodynamically smooth. The fuselage joins the other parts of the airframe and usually contains important things such as the pilot, payload and flight systems.
  • A vertical stabilizer or fin is a vertical wing-like surface mounted at the rear of the plane and typically protruding above it. The fin stabilizes the plane's yaw (turn left or right) and mounts the rudder, which controls its rotation along that axis.
  • A horizontal stabilizer or tailplane, usually mounted at the tail near the vertical stabilizer. The horizontal stabilizer is used to stabilize the plane's pitch (tilt up or down) and mounts the elevators, which provide pitch control.
  • Landing gear, a set of wheels, skids, or floats that support the plane while it is on the surface. On seaplanes, the bottom of the fuselage or floats (pontoons) support it while on the water. On some planes the landing gear retracts during flight to reduce drag.

Wings

[سنواريو]

The wings of a fixed-wing aircraft are static planes extending either side of the aircraft. When the aircraft travels forwards, air flows over the wings, which are shaped to create lift. This shape is called an airfoil and is shaped like a bird's wing.

Wing structure

[سنواريو]

Airplanes have flexible wing surfaces which are stretched across a frame and made rigid by the lift forces exerted by the airflow over them. Larger aircraft have rigid wing surfaces which provide additional strength.

Whether flexible or rigid, most wings have a strong frame to give them their shape and to transfer lift from the wing surface to the rest of the aircraft. The main structural elements are one or more spars running from root to tip, and many ribs running from the leading (front) to the trailing (rear) edge.

Early airplane engines had little power, and lightness was very important. Also, early airfoil sections were very thin, and could not have a strong frame installed within. So, until the 1930s, most wings were too lightweight to have enough strength, and external bracing struts and wires were added. When the available engine power increased during the 1920s and 30s, wings could be made heavy and strong enough that bracing was not needed any more. This type of unbraced wing is called a cantilever wing.

Wing configuration

[سنواريو]
Captured Morane-Saulnier L wire-braced parasol monoplane

The number and shape of the wings varies widely on different types. A given wing plane may be full-span or divided by a central fuselage into port (left) and starboard (right) wings. Occasionally, even more wings have been used, with the three-winged triplane achieving some fame in WWI. The four-winged quadruplane and other multiplane designs have had little success.

A monoplane has a single wing plane, a biplane has two stacked one above the other, a tandem wing has two placed one behind the other. When the available engine power increased during the 1920s and 30s and bracing was no longer needed, the unbraced or cantilever monoplane became the most common form of powered type.

The wing planform is the shape when seen from above. To be aerodynamically efficient, a wing should be straight with a long span from side to side but have a short chord (high aspect ratio). But to be structurally efficient, and hence light weight, a wing must have a short span but still enough area to provide lift (low aspect ratio).

At transonic speeds (near the speed of sound), it helps to sweep the wing backwards or forwards to reduce drag from supersonic shock waves as they begin to form. The swept wing is just a straight wing swept backwards or forwards.

Two Dassault Mirage G prototypes, one with wings swept

The delta wing is a triangle shape that may be used for several reasons. As a flexible Rogallo wing, it allows a stable shape under aerodynamic forces and so is often used for ultralight aircraft and even kites. As a supersonic wing, it combines high strength with low drag and so is often used for fast jets.

A variable geometry wing can be changed in flight to a different shape. The variable-sweep wing transforms between an efficient straight configuration for takeoff and landing, to a low-drag swept configuration for high-speed flight. Other forms of variable planform have been flown, but none have gone beyond the research stage.

Fuselage

[سنواريو]

A fuselage is a long, thin body, usually with tapered or rounded ends to make its shape aerodynamically smooth. The fuselage may contain the flight crew, passengers, cargo or payload, fuel and engines. The pilots of manned aircraft operate them from a cockpit located at the front or top of the fuselage and equipped with controls and usually windows and instruments. A plane may have more than one fuselage, or it may be fitted with booms with the tail located between the booms to allow the extreme rear of the fuselage to be useful for a variety of purposes.

Wings vs. bodies

[سنواريو]

Flying wing

[سنواريو]
The US-produced B-2 Spirit is a strategic bomber. It has a flying wing configuration and is capable of intercontinental missions

A flying wing is a tailless aircraft which has no definite fuselage. Most of the crew, payload and equipment are housed inside the main wing structure.[55]

The flying wing configuration was studied extensively in the 1930s and 1940s, notably by Jack Northrop and Cheston L. Eshelman in the United States, and Alexander Lippisch and the Horten brothers in Germany. After the war, several experimental designs were based on the flying wing concept, but the known difficulties remained intractable. Some general interest continued until the early 1950s but designs did not necessarily offer a great advantage in range and presented several technical problems, leading to the adoption of "conventional" solutions like the Convair B-36 and the B-52 Stratofortress. Due to the practical need for a deep wing, the flying wing concept is most practical for designs in the slow-to-medium speed range, and there has been continual interest in using it as a tactical airlifter design.

Interest in flying wings was renewed in the 1980s due to their potentially low radar reflection cross-sections. Stealth technology relies on shapes which only reflect radar waves in certain directions, thus making the aircraft hard to detect unless the radar receiver is at a specific position relative to the aircraft - a position that changes continuously as the aircraft moves. This approach eventually led to the Northrop B-2 Spirit stealth bomber. In this case, the aerodynamic advantages of the flying wing are not the primary needs. However, modern computer-controlled fly-by-wire systems allowed for many of the aerodynamic drawbacks of the flying wing to be minimized, making for an efficient and stable long-range bomber.

Blended wing body

[سنواريو]
Computer-generated model of the Boeing X-48

Blended wing body aircraft have a flattened and airfoil shaped body, which produces most of the lift to keep itself aloft, and distinct and separate wing structures, though the wings are smoothly blended in with the body.

Thus blended wing bodied aircraft incorporate design features from both a futuristic fuselage and flying wing design. The purported advantages of the blended wing body approach are efficient high-lift wings and a wide airfoil-shaped body. This enables the entire craft to contribute to lift generation with the result of potentially increased fuel economy.

Lifting body

[سنواريو]
The Martin Aircraft Company X-24 was built as part of a 1963 to 1975 experimental US military program.

A lifting body is a configuration in which the body itself produces lift. In contrast to a flying wing, which is a wing with minimal or no conventional fuselage, a lifting body can be thought of as a fuselage with little or no conventional wing. Whereas a flying wing seeks to maximize cruise efficiency at subsonic speeds by eliminating non-lifting surfaces, lifting bodies generally minimize the drag and structure of a wing for subsonic, supersonic, and hypersonic flight, or, spacecraft re-entry. All of these flight regimes pose challenges for proper flight stability.

Lifting bodies were a major area of research in the 1960s and 1970s as a means to build a small and lightweight crewed spacecraft. The US built several famous lifting body rocket planes to test the concept, as well as several rocket-launched re-entry vehicles that were tested over the Pacific. Interest waned as the US Air Force lost interest in the crewed mission, and major development ended during the Space Shuttle design process when it became clear that the highly shaped fuselages made it difficult to fit fuel tankage.

Empennage and foreplane

[سنواريو]
Canards on the Saab Viggen

The classic airfoil section wing is unstable in flight and difficult to control. Flexible-wing types often rely on an anchor line or the weight of a pilot hanging beneath to maintain the correct attitude. Some free-flying types use an adapted airfoil that is stable, or other ingenious mechanisms including, most recently, electronic artificial stability.

To achieve stability and control, most fixed-wing types have an empennage comprising a fin and rudder which act horizontally and a tailplane and elevator which act vertically. These control surfaces can typically be trimmed to relieve control forces for various stages of flight. This is so common that it is known as the conventional layout. Sometimes there may be two or more fins, spaced out along the tailplane.

Some types have a horizontal "canard" foreplane ahead of the main wing, instead of behind it.[56][57][58] This foreplane may contribute to the lift, the trim, or control of the aircraft, or to several of these.

Controls and instruments

[سنواريو]
A light aircraft (Robin DR400/500) cockpit

Airplanes have complex flight control systems. The main controls allow the pilot to direct the aircraft in the air by controlling the attitude (roll, pitch and yaw) and engine thrust.

On manned aircraft, cockpit instruments provide information to the pilots, including flight data, engine output, navigation, communications and other aircraft systems that may be installed.

Safety

[سنواريو]

When risk is measured by deaths per passenger kilometer, air travel is approximately 10 times safer than travel by bus or rail. However, when using the deaths per journey statistic, air travel is significantly more dangerous than car, rail, or bus travel.[59] Air travel insurance is relatively expensive for this reason—insurers generally use the deaths per journey statistic.[60] There is a significant difference between the safety of airliners and that of smaller private planes, with the per-mile statistic indicating that airliners are 8.3 times safer than smaller planes.[61]

Environmental impact

[سنواريو]
Water vapor contrails left by high-altitude jet airliners. These may contribute to cirrus cloud formation.

Like all activities involving combustion, fossil-fuel-powered aircraft release soot and other pollutants into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) are also produced. In addition, there are environmental impacts specific to airplanes: for instance,

  • Airplanes operating at high altitudes near the tropopause (mainly large jet airliners) emit aerosols and leave contrails, both of which can increase cirrus cloud formation – cloud cover may have increased by up to 0.2% since the birth of aviation.[62]
  • Airplanes operating at high altitudes near the tropopause can also release chemicals that interact with greenhouse gases at those altitudes, particularly nitrogen compounds, which interact with ozone, increasing ozone concentrations.[63][64]
  • Most light piston aircraft burn avgas, which contains tetraethyllead (TEL). Some lower-compression piston engines can operate on unleaded mogas and turbine engines and diesel engines – neither of which require lead – are used on some newer light aircraft. Some non-polluting light electric aircraft are already in production.

Another environmental impact of airplanes is noise pollution, mainly caused by aircraft taking off and landing.

پڻ ڏسو

[سنواريو]

حوالا

[سنواريو]
  1. ↑ "Code of Federal Regulations: 14 CFR Part 1 -- Definitions and Abbreviations". National Archives of the United States (انگريزي ۾). 3 January 2025. 2025-01-10 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  2. ↑ "Global air traffic hits new record". Channel News Asia (آمريڪي انگريزي ۾). January 18, 2018. اصل نسخو مان January 3, 2021 تي محفوظ ڪيل. May 28, 2022 تي حاصل ڪيل. {{cite news}}: More than one of |accessdate= and |access-date= specified (مدد); More than one of |archivedate= and |archive-date= specified (مدد); More than one of |archiveurl= and |archive-url= specified (مدد)
  3. ↑ Crabtree, Tom; Hoang, Tom; Tom, Russell (2016). "World Air Cargo Forecast: 2016–2017" (PDF). Boeing Aircraft. 2018-05-12 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  4. ↑ "Cayley, Sir George: Encyclopædia Britannica 2007". Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 25 August 2007.
  5. ↑ Otto-Lilienthal-Museum. "Otto-Lilienthal-Museum Anklam". Lilienthal-museum.de. 2022-03-04 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  6. ↑ "Two air disasters in two days and their Hong Kong connection". South China Morning Post (انگريزي ۾). 2019-01-24. 2024-06-28 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  7. ↑ "airplane". آڪسفورڊ انگلش ڊڪشنري (Online ڇاپو). آڪسفورڊ يونيورسٽي پريس. December 31, 2025 تي حاصل ڪيل. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  8. ↑ Aulus Gellius, "Attic Nights", Book X, 12.9 at LacusCurtius
  9. ↑ "Archytas of Tarentum, Technology Museum of Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece". Tmth.edu.gr. 2013-05-30 تي حاصل ڪيل.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (ڳنڍڻو)
  10. ↑ "Modern rocketry". Pressconnects.com. 2013-05-30 تي حاصل ڪيل.سانچو:Fix/category[مئل ڳنڍڻو]
  11. ↑ "Automata history". Automata.co.uk. اصل نسخو مان 2002-12-05 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 2013-05-30 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  12. ↑ White, Lynn. "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition". Technology and Culture, Volume 2, Issue 2, 1961, pp. 97–111 (97–99 resp. 100–101).
  13. ↑ "Aviation History". 26 July 2009 تي حاصل ڪيل. In 1799 he set forth for the first time in history the concept of the modern aeroplane. Cayley had identified the drag vector (parallel to the flow) and the lift vector (perpendicular to the flow).
  14. ↑ "Sir George Cayley (British Inventor and Scientist)". Britannica. 26 July 2009 تي حاصل ڪيل. English pioneer of aerial navigation and aeronautical engineering and designer of the first successful glider to carry a human being aloft. Cayley established the modern configuration of an airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control as early as 1799.
  15. ↑ "Cayley, Sir George: Encyclopædia Britannica 2007". Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 25 August 2007.
  16. ↑ E. Hendrickson III, Kenneth. The Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in World History, Volume 3. pp. 10.
  17. ↑ The Journal of San Diego History, July 1968, Vol. 14, No. 3
  18. ↑ Beril, Becker (1967). Dreams and Realities of the Conquest of the Skies. New York: Atheneum. pp. 124–125
  19. ↑ Otto-Lilienthal-Museum. "Otto-Lilienthal-Museum Anklam". Lilienthal-museum.de. 2022-03-04 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  20. ↑ "The Lilienthal glider project". Das DLR. اصل نسخو مان 15 February 2020 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 2023-08-08 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  21. ↑ Otto-Lilienthal-Museum. "Otto-Lilienthal-Museum Anklam". Lilienthal-museum.de. 2022-03-04 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  22. ↑ Crouch 1989, pp. 226–228.
  23. ↑ سانچو:Cite Australian Dictionary of Biography
  24. ↑ Gibbs-Smith, Charles H. (3 Apr 1959). "Hops and Flights: A roll call of early powered take-offs". Flight 75 (2619): 468. http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1959/1959%20-%200937.html. Retrieved 24 Aug 2013.
  25. ↑ "European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company EADS N.V.: Eole/Clément Ader". اصل نسخو مان October 20, 2007 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 2007-10-20 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  26. ↑ Gibbs-Smith, Charles Harvard (1968). Clément Ader: His Flight-Claims and His Place in History. Aeronautical engineers. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. pp. 214.
  27. ↑ FAI News: 100 Years Ago, the Dream of Icarus Became Reality آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا January 13, 2011, حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين. posted 17 December 2003. Retrieved: 5 January 2007.
  28. ↑ "Bernardo Malfitano - AirShowFan.com". airshowfan.com. محفوظ ڪيل مان اصل نسخي کان 30 March 2013 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 1 April 2015 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  29. ↑ Jones, Ernest. "Santos Dumont in France 1906–1916: The Very Earliest Early Birds". آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 2016-03-16 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين. earlyaviators.com, 25 December 2006. Retrieved: 17 August 2009.
  30. ↑ Les vols du 14bis relatés au fil des éditions du journal l'illustration de 1906. The wording is: "cette prouesse est le premier vol au monde homologué par l'Aéro-Club de France et la toute jeune Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI)."
  31. ↑ Santos-Dumont: Pionnier de l'aviation, dandy de la Belle Epoque.
  32. ↑ Crouch, Tom (1982). Bleriot XI, The Story of a Classic Aircraft. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 21 and 22. ISBN 0-87474-345-1.
  33. ↑ C. Brunco, Leonard (1993). On the Move: A Chronology of Advances in Transportation. Gale Research. pp. 192.
  34. ↑ "Concorde grounded for good" (برطانوي انگريزي ۾). 2003-04-10. 2021-12-18 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  35. ↑ Filseth, Trevor (2021-12-04). "Why Don't Concordes Fly Anymore?". The National Interest (انگريزي ۾). 2021-12-18 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  36. ↑ Beaumont, R.A.; Aeronautical Engineering, Odhams, 1942, Chapter 13, "Airscrews".
  37. ↑ Sadraey, Mohammad H. (January 1, 2017) (en ۾). Aircraft Performance: An Engineering Approach. CRC Press. pp. 137. ISBN 9781498776561. https://books.google.com/books?id=CDMNDgAAQBAJ&q=propellor+aircraft+speed&pg=PA136.
  38. ↑ Power Beaming آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 2013-02-17 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين. Dfrc.nasa.gov.
  39. ↑ Pipistrel Expands Electric Aircraft Line (2013)
  40. ↑ Cumpsty, Nicholas; Heyes, Andrew (2015-07-22) (en ۾). Jet Propulsion: A Simple Guide to the Aerodynamics and Thermodynamic Design and Performance of Jet Engines. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-316-43263-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=SFxiCgAAQBAJ&q=Turbofan+engine+explained.
  41. 1 2 El-Sayed, Ahmed F. (2017-07-06) (en ۾). Aircraft Propulsion and Gas Turbine Engines. CRC Press. pp. 43, 770. ISBN 978-1-4665-9517-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=ijoPEAAAQBAJ&q=Turbofan.
  42. ↑ "Here Comes the Flying Stovepipe". Time. 1965-11-26. اصل نسخو مان 2008-04-08 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 2008-04-08 تي حاصل ڪيل. {{cite news}}: More than one of |accessdate= and |access-date= specified (مدد); More than one of |archivedate= and |archive-date= specified (مدد); More than one of |archiveurl= and |archive-url= specified (مدد)
  43. ↑ Weber, Richard J.; Mackay, John S. (September 1958). An Analysis of Ramjet Engines Using Supersonic Combustion. NASA Scientific and Technical Information. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19930085282&hterms=weber+mackay&qs=N%3D0%26Ntk%3DAll%26Ntt%3Dweber%2520mackay%26Ntx%3Dmode%2520matchallpartial%26Nm%3D123%7CCollection%7CNASA%2520STI%7C%7C17%7CCollection%7CNACA. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
  44. ↑ Sutton, George P.; Biblarz, Oscar (2016-12-27) (en ۾). Rocket Propulsion Elements. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 29. ISBN 978-1-118-75365-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=XwSRDQAAQBAJ&q=mass+acceleration.
  45. ↑ "UK will leave EU aviation safety regulator at end of 2020". BBC News (برطانوي انگريزي ۾). 2020-03-07. 2021-12-19 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  46. ↑ Canada, Transport (2019-10-15). "Civil Aviation". Transport Canada (ڪينيڊيائي انگريزي ۾). 2021-12-19 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  47. ↑ "Aerospace Welding | Helander Metal". Helander Metal (آمريڪي انگريزي ۾). 2017-12-27 تي حاصل ڪيل.
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  50. ↑ Purdy, Don: AeroCrafter - Homebuilt Aircraft Sourcebook, Fifth Edition, pages 1–164. BAI Communications, 15 July 1998. ISBN 0-9636409-4-1
  51. ↑ Porte, Todd R. (1991). Social Responses to Large Technical Systems: Control or Anticipation. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. p. 128. ISBN 978-9-40113-400-2.
  52. ↑ Christiansen, Bryan, ed (2016). Handbook of Research on Global Supply Chain Management. Hershey: Business Science Reference. p. 211. ISBN 978-1-46669-640-2.
  53. ↑ Crane, Dale (2012). Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms (5 ed.). Newcastle, Washington: Aviation Supplies & Academics. pp. 19, 271. ISBN 978-1-56027-864-1.
  54. ↑ Ackert, Shannon (2013). "Commercial Aspects of Aircraft Customization". Aircraft Monitor: 3.
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  57. ↑ Aviation Publishers Co. Limited, From the Ground Up, page 10 (27th revised edition) ISBN 0-9690054-9-0
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  59. ↑ The risks of travel آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا September 7, 2001, حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين.. Numberwatch.co.uk.
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  64. ↑ Grewe, V.; D. Brunner; M. Dameris; J. L. Grenfell; R. Hein; D. Shindell; J. Staehelin (July 2001). "Origin and variability of upper tropospheric nitrogen oxides and ozone at northern mid-latitudes". Atmospheric Environment 35 (20): 3421–33. doi:10.1016/S1352-2310(01)00134-0. Bibcode: 2001AtmEn..35.3421G.

ڪتابيات

[سنواريو]
  • Blatner, David. The Flying Book: Everything You've Ever Wondered About Flying On Airplanes. ISBN 0-8027-7691-4

ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا

[سنواريو]

سانچو:Aircraft types (by method of thrust and lift) سانچو:Portalbar

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