يهودين جي تاريخ

يهودي (Jews) تاريخي اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه، ٻه لاڳاپيل بادشاهتن جيڪيون لوهه جي دور ۾ سرزمين شام (ليونٽ) ۾ ظاهر ٿيون، جي بني اسرائيل ۽ عبرانين مان پيدا ٿيا. بني اسرائيل جو پهريون ذڪر، 1213-1203 ق.م. جو مرنيپتا اسٽيل تي لکيل آهي؛ بعد ۾ مذهبي ادب بني اسرائيلن جي ڪهاڻي گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 1500 ق.م. تائين ٻڌائي ٿو. روايتي طور تي، اسرائيل جو نالو عبراني بزرگ يعقوب سان شروع ٿيو آهي، جيڪو نالي لاءِ هڪ داستاني ايٽولوجي فراهم ڪري ٿو - هڪ فرشتي سان وڙهڻ کان پوءِ، يعقوب جو نالو اسرائيل رکيو ويو، جنهن جو مطلب آهي "اهو جيڪو خدا سان ويڙهي ٿو". سامريه ۾ قائم اسرائيل جي بادشاهت 720 ق.م. ڌاري نيو-آشوري سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي ۽ 586 ق.م. ڌاري يهودين جي بادشاهت نيو-بابلي سلطنت جي هٿ ۾ اچي وئي. يهودي آبادي جو هڪ حصو بابل ڏانهن جلاوطن ڪيو ويو. آشور ۽ بابل ۾ قيد ٿيل يهودين کي ڊائاسپورا جي شروعات جي نمائندگي ڪندڙ سمجهيو ويندو آهي.

يهودي روايت موجب، يعقوب، جيڪو ريمبران جي هن تصوير ۾ ملائڪ سان وڙهندي ڏيکاريو ويو آهي، اسرائيل جي قبيلن جو پيءُ هو.

هخامنشي سلطنت طرفان هن علائقي کي فتح ڪرڻ کان پوءِ، جلاوطن يهودين کي واپس اچڻ ۽ مندر کي ٻيهر تعمير ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي؛ اها واقعا ٻئي مندر جي دور جي شروعات جي نشاندهي ڪن ٿا. ڪيترن ئي صدين جي پرڏيهي حڪمراني کانپوءِ، سيليوسڊ سلطنت جي خلاف مڪابي بغاوت هڪ آزاد هاشموني بادشاهت جو سبب بڻي، پر ان رياست کي بتدريج رومي سلطنت ۾ شامل ڪيو ويو. يهودي-رومن جنگيون، پهرين ۽ ٻي صدي عيسوي ۾ رومن جي خلاف ناڪام بغاوتن جو هڪ سلسلو، يروشلم ۽ ٻئي مندر جي تباهي ۽ ڪيترن ئي يهودين کي نيڪالي ڏيڻ جو سبب بڻيون. سر زمين شام فلسطين ۾ يهودي آبادي ايندڙ صدين دوران بتدريج گهٽجي وئي، يهودي ڊائاسپورا جي ڪردار کي وڌايو ۽ روحاني ۽ آبادي جي مرڪز کي خالي ٿيل يهوديا کان گليلي ۽ پوءِ بابل ڏانهن منتقل ڪيو، يهودين جون ننڍيون برادريون رومن سلطنت ۾ پکڙيل هيون. ساڳئي عرصي دوران، مشناه ۽ تلمود، مرڪزي يهودي متن، ترتيب ڏنا ويا. ايندڙ هزار سالن ۾، ڊائاسپورا برادريون ٽن وڏن نسلي ذيلي تقسيم ۾، جتي انهن جا ابا ڏاڏا آباد ٿيا هئا: وچ ۽ اوڀر يورپ ۾ اشڪنازي، آئبيريا ۾ سيفاردي ۽ وچ اوڀر ۽ اتر آفريڪا ۾ مزراهي طور گڏ ٿي ويون.

شروعاتي اسلامي فتحون اوڀرين رومي سمنڊ جي علائقن تي بازنطيني ڪنٽرول ختم ڪري ڇڏيو، نئين قائم ٿيل راشدون خلافت 7هين صدي دوران ليونٽ، ميسوپوٽيميا ۽ اتر آفريڪا تي قبضو ڪيو ۽ 8هين صدي دوران آئبيرين جزيره نما تي قبضو ڪيو. يهودي ثقافت مسلم اندلس ۾ هڪ سونهري دور مان لطف اندوز ٿي، يهودين کي سماج ۾ وڏي پيماني تي قبول ڪيو ويو ۽ انهن جي مذهبي، ثقافتي ۽ معاشي زندگي عدم برداشت واري الموحدين جي اچڻ کان اڳ ڦٽي نڪتي. سال 1492ع ۾ ڪيٿولڪ حڪمران، راڻي ازابيل اول ۽ بادشاهه فرڊيننڊ II پاران يهودين کي اسپين ڇڏڻ تي مجبور ڪيو ويو، جنهن کان پوءِ اهي وڏي تعداد ۾ عثماني سلطنت ۽ اٽلي ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي. 12هين ۽ 15هين صدي جي وچ ۾، اشڪنازي يهودين وچ يورپ ۾ انتهائي ظلم جو تجربو ڪيو، جنهن جي ڪري انهن جي پولينڊ ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. 18هين صدي ۾ هسڪاله دانشورانه تحريڪ جو عروج ڏٺو ويو. 18هين صدي جي شروعات ۾، يهودي يهودين کي پابندين وارن قانونن کان آزاد ڪرڻ ۽ وسيع يورپي سماج ۾ ضم ڪرڻ لاءِ مهم هلائڻ شروع ڪئي.

19هين صدي ۾، جڏهن اولهائين يورپ ۾ يهودين کي قانون جي سامهون برابري ڏني پئي وئي، ته آبادڪاري جي ميدان ۾ يهودين کي وڌندڙ ظلم، قانوني پابندين ۽ وڏي پيماني تي قتل عام جو سامنا ڪرڻ پيو. 1870 ۽ 1880 جي ڏهاڪن دوران، يورپ ۾ يهودي آبادي فلسطين ۾ يهودي رياست کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي مقصد سان عثماني شام ڏانهن هجرت تي وڌيڪ سرگرم بحث ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو. صهيوني تحريڪ سرڪاري طور تي سال 1897ع ۾ قائم ڪئي وئي هئي. سال 1881ع ۽ 1924ع جي وچ ۾ آمريڪا ڏانهن 20 لک کان وڌيڪ يهودين جي وڏي پيماني تي هجرت کي به شروع ڪيو. يورپ ۽ آمريڪا جا يهودي سائنس، ثقافت ۽ معيشت جي شعبن ۾ ڪاميابي حاصل ڪيا. عام طور تي سڀ کان وڌيڪ مشهور سمجهيا ويندڙن ۾ البرٽ آئن اسٽائن ۽ لڊوگ وٽگنسٽائن شامل هئا. هن وقت ڪيترائي نوبل انعام يافته يهودي هئا، جيئن اڃا تائين آهن.

سال 1933ع ۾، جرمني ۾ ايڊولف هٽلر ۽ نازي پارٽي جي اقتدار ۾ اچڻ سان، يهودين لاءِ صورتحال سخت ٿي وئي. معاشي بحران، نسل پرست يهودي مخالف قانون ۽ ايندڙ جنگ جي خوف سبب ڪيترائي ماڻهو يورپ کان لازمي فلسطين، آمريڪا ۽ سوويت يونين ڏانهن ڀڄي ويا. سال 1939ع ۾، ٻي مهاڀاري جنگ شروع ٿي ۽ سال 1941ع تائين جرمني تقريبن سڄي يورپ تي قبضو ڪري ورتو. سال 1941ع ۾، سوويت يونين جي حملي کان پوءِ، آخري حل شروع ٿيو، هڪ غير معمولي پيماني تي هڪ وسيع منظم آپريشن، جنهن جو مقصد يهودي ماڻهن کي ختم ڪرڻ هو ۽ نتيجي ۾ يورپ ۽ اتر آفريڪا ۾ يهودين جو قتل عام ٿيو. پولينڊ ۾، سڀني ڪنسنٽريشن ڪيمپن ۾ گيس چيمبرن ۾ 30 لک يهودي قتل ڪيا ويا، جن ۾ صرف آشوٽز ڪيمپ ڪمپليڪس ۾ 10 لک شامل هئا. هي نسل ڪشي، جنهن ۾ تقريبن 60 لک يهودين کي طريقي سان ختم ڪيو ويو، هولوڪاسٽ جي نالي سان مشهور آهي.

هولوڪاسٽ کان اڳ ۽ دوران، يهودين جي وڏي تعداد لازمي فلسطين ڏانهن هجرت ڪئي. 14 مئي 1948ع تي، برطانوي مينڊيٽ جي خاتمي تي، ڊيوڊ بين-گورين ارض اسرائيل (اسرائيل جي سرزمين) ۾ هڪ يهودي ۽ جمهوري رياست، اسرائيل جي رياست جي قيام جو اعلان ڪيو.

ان کان پوءِ فوري طور تي، سڀني پاڙيسري عرب رياستون اسرائيل تي حملو ڪيو، پر نئين ٺهيل اسرائيلي دفاعي فوج (IDF) مزاحمت ڪئي. سال 1949ع ۾ جنگ ختم ٿي وئي ۽ اسرائيل رياست جي تعمير شروع ڪئي ۽ سڄي يورپ ۽ وچ اوڀر جي ملڪن مان ايندڙ يهودين جي وڏين لهرن کي جذب ڪيو. سال 2022ع تائين، اسرائيل هڪ پارلياماني جمهوريت آهي جنهن جي آبادي 96 لک ماڻهن جي آهي، جن مان 70 لک يهودي آهن. (غزا ۽ مغربي ڪناري جي 35 لک آبادي کانسواء).

اسرائيل کان ٻاهر سڀ کان وڏي يهودي برادري آمريڪا ۾ آهي، جڏهن ته ٻيون وڏي برادريون فرانس، ڪينيڊا، ارجنٽائن، روس، برطانيه، آسٽريليا ۽ جرمني ۾ پڻ موجود آهن. هن وقت، يهودي نسل جون ٻه خودمختيار رياستون؛ اسرائيل ۽ روس ۾ يهودي خودمختيار اوبلاست آهن جيڪي انهن جي اختيار هيٺ آهن ته اهي پناهه گاهه طور ڪم ڪن.

جائزو

قديم يهودي تاريخ بائيبل ۽ غير بائيبل ذريعن، اپوڪرائيفا ۽ سوڊيپيگرافا، جوزيفس جي لکڻين، گريڪو-رومن ليکڪن ۽ چرچ جي پادرين، گڏوگڏ آثار قديمه جي دريافتن، لکتن، قديم دستاويزن، جهڙوڪ ايليفينٽائن ۽ فيوم مان پيپيري، مردار سمنڊ جا اسڪرول، بار ڪوخبا خط، باباٿا آرڪائيوز ۽ قاهره جينيزا دستاويزن، مان معلوم ٿئي ٿي، جيڪي زباني تاريخ ۽ مدراش ۽ تلمود ۾ تبصرن جي مجموعن سان گڏ آهن.

ابتدائي جديد دور ۾ پرنٽنگ پريس جي آمد سان، يهودين جي تاريخ ۽ عبراني بائيبل جا شروعاتي ايڊيشن شايع ٿيا جيڪي يهودي مذهب جي تاريخ ۽ وڌندڙ طور تي، يهودين جي قومي تاريخن، يهودي قوم ۽ سڃاڻپ سان لاڳاپيل هئا، هڪ مسودي يا لکندڙ ڪلچر کان هڪ پرنٽنگ ڪلچر ڏانهن منتقلي هئي. يهودي مورخن پنهنجن اجتماعي تجربن جا احوال لکيا، پر سياسي، ثقافتي ۽ سائنسي يا فلسفياتي ڳولا لاءِ تاريخ کي پڻ وڌندڙ طور تي استعمال ڪيو. ليکڪن ثقافتي طور تي ورثي ۾ مليل متن جي هڪ مجموعي کي استعمال ڪيو ته جيئن فن جي حالت تي تنقيد ڪرڻ يا اڳتي وڌائڻ لاءِ هڪ منطقي داستان تيار ڪري سگهجي. جديد يهودي تاريخ نويسي يورپي نشاۃِ ثانيه ۽ روشن خيالي جي دور جهڙين دانشورانه تحريڪن سان جڙيل آهي، پر وچين دور جي آخر ۾ ۽ قديم زماني ۾ مختلف ذريعن ۾ اڳوڻين ڪمن تي ڌيان ڏنو. اڄ، يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ کي اڪثر ست دورن ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي:

1. قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه رياست (1200 ق.م. کان 586 ق.م.)
2. ٻيو مندر وارو دور (516 ق.م. کان 70 عيسوي)
3. ربانڪ يا تلمودي دور (70 کان 640 عيسوي)
4. وچين دور (640 کان 1492 عيسوي)
5. ابتدائي جديد دور (1492-1750 عيسوي)
6. جديد دور (1750ع کان 20هين صدي)
7. صيهونيت، هولوڪاسٽ ۽ اسرائيل جو قيام (19 کان 21هين صدي)

قديم اسرائيل

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو يهوديت جي اصل

شروعاتي بني اسرائيل

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو بني اسرائيل

تل ميگيدو، هڪ ڪنعاني ۽ بعد ۾ اسرائيلي شهر جا کنڊر

ابتدائي يهودين ۽ انهن جي پاڙيسرين جي تاريخ، ميڊيٽرينين سمنڊ جي زرخيز هلال ۽ اوڀر ساحل تي مرڪز آهي. اها انهن ماڻهن سان شروع ٿئي ٿي جيڪا نيل ۽ ميسوپوٽيميا جي وچ واري علائقي تي قبضو ڪيو هو. مصر ۽ بابل ۾ ثقافت جي قديم مرڪزن، عرب جي ريگستانن ۽ ايشيا ڪوچڪ جي ميدان جي اهي، ڪنعان جي زمين (تقريبن جديد اسرائيل، فلسطين، اردن ۽ لبنان سان ملندڙ جلندڙ) تهذيبن جي ميلاپ جو هنڌ هئي.

سال 926 ق.م. ۾ اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه جون بادشاهتون

اسرائيل جي نالي سان هڪ قوم جو سڀ کان پهريون رڪارڊ ٿيل ثبوت قديم مصر جي مرنيپتاه اسٽيلئ ۾ نظر اچي ٿو، جيڪو 1200 ق.م. جو آهي. جديد آثار قديمه جي حساب موجب، اسرائيلي ۽ انهن جي ثقافت هڪ الڳ مونولئٽرسٽڪ ۽ پوء توحيد پرست (monotheistic) مذهب جي ترقي ذريعي ڪنعاني ماڻهن ۽ انهن جي ثقافتن مان نڪتل هئي، جيڪا هڪ قومي خدا "يهواه" تي مرڪوز هو. اها عبراني ٻولي جي هڪ قديم شڪل ڳالهائيندا هئا، جيڪا اڄ بائيبل جي عبراني جي نالي سان مشهور آهي.

پهرين صدي قبل مسيح جي وچ کان، يهودين کي روايتي طور تي پنهنجي تاريخ جي جيڪا سمجھ هئي، اها عبراني بائيبل ۾ بيان ڪيل روايتن جي چوڌاري مرڪوز هئي. هن خيال موجب، ابراهيم (اهو ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته هو يهودين جو حياتياتي پيشوا ۽ يهوديت جو پيءُ آهي) پهريون يهودي آهي.

بعد ۾ اسحاق ابراهيم مان پيدا ٿيو ۽ يعقوب اسحاق مان پيدا ٿيو. هڪ ملائڪ سان ويڙهه کان پوءِ، يعقوب کي اسرائيل جو نالو ڏنو ويو. سخت ڏڪار کانپوءِ، يعقوب ۽ سندس ٻارهن پٽ مصر ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي ويا، جتي انهن آخرڪار اسرائيل جا ٻارهن قبيلا ٺاهيا. بعد ۾ بني اسرائيل کي مصر جي غلامي مان ڪڍيو ويو ۽ موسيٰ طرفان ڪنعان آندو ويو. انهن آخرڪار يوشع جي اڳواڻي ۾ ڪنعان کي فتح ڪيو.

جديد عالم متفق آهن ته بائيبل بني اسرائيل جي اصليت جو مستند احوال فراهم نٿو ڪري. اتفاق راءِ ان ڳالهه جي حمايت ڪري ٿو ته آثار قديمه جا ثبوت وڏي پيماني تي اسرائيل جي اصليت کي 1200 کان 1000 ق.م. ۾ ڪنعان ۾ ڏيکارين ٿا، مصر ۾ نه. اهو "زبردست" آهي ۽ "مصر مان نڪرڻ يا سينائي ​​جي بيابان ذريعي 40 سالن جي زيارت لاءِ ڪا به گنجائش نه ٿو ڇڏي".

ڪيترا ئي آثار قديمه جا ماهر موسيٰ ۽ خروج جي آثار قديمه جي تحقيق کي "هڪ بيڪار جستجو" طور ڇڏي ڏنو آهي. بهرحال، اهو قبول ڪيو ويو آهي، ته هن داستان جو هڪ "تاريخي بنياد" آهي.

آثار قديمه جي ماهرن ۽ مصريات جي ماهرن جي هڪ صدي جي تحقيق ۾ ڪو به ثبوت نه مليو آهي، جيڪو مصري قيد ۽ فرار ۽ بيابان مان سفر جي خروج جي داستان سان سڌو سنئون لاڳاپيل ٿي سگهي ٿو، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ اهو مشورو ڏنو ويو آهي ته لوهه جي دور جو اسرائيل - يهودا ۽ اسرائيل جي بادشاهتن جي اصل ڪنعان ۾ آهي، مصر ۾ نه. ابتدائي اسرائيلي آبادين جي ثقافت ڪنعاني آهي. انهن جي گروهي-شيون ڪنعاني ديوتا ايل، برتن، مقامي ڪنعاني روايت ۽ استعمال ٿيل الفابيٽ ابتدائي ڪنعاني آهن، ۾ رهي ٿو. "اسرائيلي" ڳوٺن کي ڪنعاني جڳهن کان ڌار ڪرڻ لاء واحد نشان سوئر جي هڏن جي غير موجودگي آهي. جيتوڻيڪ ڇا اهو نسلي نشان طور ورتو وڃي ٿو يا ٻين عنصرن جي ڪري آهي، اهو تڪرار جو موضوع رهي ٿو.

بائبل جي داستان مطابق، اسرائيل جي سرزمين ٻارهن قبيلن جي هڪ ڪنفيڊريشن ۾ منظم هئي جنهن تي ڪيترن ئي سؤ سالن تائين قاضين جي هڪ سلسلي جي حڪومت هئي.

قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهودا

* قديم اسرائيل جي تاريخ

قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه جون رياستون

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو قديم اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه جي رياستن جي تاريخ

اسرائيل ميوزيم ۾ "يهودا جي بادشاهه احز جي پٽ حزقياه" جي هڪ مُهر لڳل بُلا (LMLK مُهر)

لوهه جي ٻئي دور جي دوران ٻه اسرائيلي بادشاهتون: اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه اُڀريون. بائيبل اسرائيل ۽ يهوديه کي اسرائيل جي اڳوڻي گڏيل بادشاهت جي جانشين طور پيش ڪري ٿي، پر ان جي تاريخي حيثيت تي تڪرار آهي. تاريخدان ۽ آثار قديمه جا ماهر متفق آهن ته اسرائيل جي اترين بادشاهت 900 ق.م. کان ۽ يهوديه جي بادشاهت 700 ق.م. کان موجود هئي. "تل دان اسٽيلئ" (1993ع ۾ دريافت ٿيل) ڏيکاري ٿو ته بادشاهت، گهٽ ۾ گهٽ ڪنهن نه ڪنهن شڪل ۾، 9هين صدي قبل مسيح جي وچ تائين موجود هئي، پر اها ان جي طاقت جي حد کي ظاهر نٿو ڪري.

بائبل جي روايت ٻڌائي ٿي ته اسرائيلي بادشاهت 1037 ق.م. ۾ ساؤل، جيڪو نبي سموئيل پاران مسح ڪيو ويو هو، جي تحت قائم ٿي ۽ دائود ۽ سندس پٽ سليمان جي تحت جاري رهي. دائود بادشاهت جي حدن کي تمام گهڻو وڌايو ۽ يروشلم کي يابوستيئن کان فتح ڪيو ۽ ان کي بادشاهت جي قومي، سياسي ۽ مذهبي راڄڌاني ۾ تبديل ڪيو. سندس پٽ، سليمان بعد ۾ يروشلم ۾ جبل موريه تي پهريون مندر تعمير ڪرايو. سندس وفات کان پوءِ، جن جي تاريخ روايتي طور تي 930 ق.م. جي آهي، جڏهن ڏهه اتر اسرائيلي قبيلن ۽ يهودا جي قبيلن (شمعون قبيلو يهودا ۾ شامل ٿي ويو) ۽ ڏکڻ ۾ بنيامين جي وچ ۾ هڪ خانه جنگي شروع ٿي، پوءِ بادشاهت اتر ۾ اسرائيل جي بادشاهت ۽ ڏکڻ ۾ يهودا جي بادشاهت ۾ ورهائجي وئي.

اسرائيل جي بادشاهت ٻن بادشاهتن مان وڌيڪ خوشحال هئي ۽ جلد ئي هڪ علائقائي طاقت ۾ ترقي ڪئي. عموري خاندان جي ڏينهن دوران، اهو سامريه، گئليلي، مٿيان اردن وادي، شارون ۽ ٽرانس اردن جي وڏن حصن کي ڪنٽرول ڪري چڪي هئي. راڄڌاني سامريه سر زمين شام ۾ لوهه جي دور جي سڀ کان وڏي محلات مان هڪ جو گهر هئي. اسرائيل جي بادشاهت 720 ق.م ۾ تباهه ٿي وئي، جڏهن ان کي نيو-آشوري سلطنت فتح ڪيو.

يهوديه جي بادشاهت، جيڪا يروشلم ۾ گاديءَ جي هنڌ رکندي هئي، جبل يهود، شيفيله، دشت يهود ۽ نيگيو جي ڪجهه حصن تي ڪنٽرول ڪيو. اسرائيل جي زوال کانپوءِ، يهوديه نو-آشوري سلطنت جي هڪ باجگذار رياست بڻجي وئي. 7هين صدي قبل مسيح ۾، بادشاهت جي آبادي تمام گهڻي وڌي وئي، ۽ آشوري بادشاه سيناخرب جي خلاف حزقياه جي بغاوت جي باوجود، آشوري غلامي هيٺ خوشحال ٿي.

ياون-يام آسٽراڪون، هڪ قديم عبراني لکت جيڪا يهوديه ۾ انتظاميه کي دستاويز ڪري ٿي.

هن دور ۾ عبراني بائيبل جا وڏا حصا لکيا ويا، جن ۾ ناحوم ۽ زيفانه سان گڏ هوشه، يسعياه، اموس ۽ ميڪاه جا ابتدائي حصا، استثناء جي تاريخ جو گهڻو حصو، استثنا جي تاريخ جو پهريون ايڊيشن (يوشوا/ججز/سموئيل/بادشاهن جون ڪتابون) ۽ حبقوق شامل آهن.

سال 605 ق.م ۾ نو-آشوري سلطنت جي خاتمي سان، مصر ۽ نو-بابلي سلطنت جي وچ ۾ ليوانت (شام، اردن ۽ فلسطين) جي ڪنٽرول لاءِ طاقت جي جدوجهد پيدا ٿي. جن جي نتيجي ۾ يهوديه جي رياست جو تيزي سان زوال ٿيو. سال 601 ق.م ۾. يهوديه جي بادشاهه يهوياخم، جيڪو تازو ئي بابل جي تابع ٿيو هو، سلطنت جي خلاف بغاوت ڪئي. جلد ئي سندس پٽ، يهوياخن سندس جاءِ تي آيو، جنهن پنهنجي پيءُ جي پاليسي جاري رکيو ۽ بابلي حملي جو سامنا ڪيو. مارچ 597 ق.م. ۾. يهوياخن بابليين جي آڏو هٿيار ڦٽا ڪيا ۽ انهن کيس قيد ڪري بابل کڻي ويا. هي شڪست بابلي تاريخن ۾ درج ٿيل آهي. پوءِ بابلي ماڻهن صدقياه، يهوياخن جي چاچي کي بادشاهه مقرر ڪيو.

سال 587 يا 586 ق.م ۾، بخت نصر بيون يهوديه ۾ ٻي بغاوت جي جواب ۾، يروشلم جو گهيرو ڪيو ۽ تباهه ڪري ڇڏيو. پهرين مندر کي تباهه ڪيو ويو ۽ ان جي مقدس برتنن کي مال غنيمت جي طور تي ضبط ڪيو ويو. تباهي کان پوءِ وڏي پيماني تي جلاوطني ڪئي وئي. شهر جي بچيل رهاڪن کي آبادي جي ٻين حصن سميت، ميسوپوٽيميا ڏانهن کڻي ويا، جيڪا يهودي تاريخ ۾ "بابلي قيد" جي نالي سان مشهور دور جي شروعات جي نشاندهي ڪندي آهي. صدقياه پاڻ گرفتار ڪيو ويو، انڌو ڪيو ويو ۽ بابل ڏانهن منتقل ڪيو ويو. ٻيا مصر ڏانهن ڀڄي ويا. يهودين پنهنجي رياست ۽ جلاوطن ماڻهن، پنهنجو وطن وڃائي ڇڏيا. بادشاهت جي خاتمي کان پوءِ، اڳوڻي يهوديه بادشاهت کي بابلي سلطنت جي هڪ صوبي جي طور تي ملائي ڇڏيو ويو.

خروج ۽ بابل ۾ قيد (587 - 538 ق.م.)

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو يهودين جي بابل ۾ قيد

قديم يهودين جو خروج ۽ بابل ڏانهن جلاوطني ۽ يروشلم ۽ سليمان جي مندر جي تباهي جو ڏيک. هڪ مصور پاران

يهوديه جي رياست جي زوال ۽ فارسي حڪمراني هيٺ وطن ڏانهن انهن جي واپسي جي وچ ۾ ڪيترن ئي ڏهاڪن دوران، يهودي تاريخ هڪ غير واضح مرحلي ۾ داخل ٿئي ٿي. ڪيترائي يهودي بابل (عراق)، ايلام (ايران) ۽ مصر ۾ جلاوطن ڪيا ويا، جڏهن ته ٻيا بابلي حڪمراني هيٺ يهوديه ۾ رهيا. يرمياه مصر ۾ برادرين جو حوالو ڏئي ٿو، جنهن ۾ ميگڊول، طهپانحيس، نوف ۽ پاٿروس ۾ آباديون شامل آهن. ان کانسواء، هڪ يهودي فوجي ڪالوني ايليفينٽائن ۾ موجود هئي، جيڪا جلاوطني کان اڳ قائم ڪئي وئي هئي، جتي انهن پنهنجو مزار ٺاهيو. توره جي باب استثنا کي وڌايو ويو ۽ اڳوڻي صحيفن کي جلاوطني جي دور ۾ ايڊٽ ڪيو ويو. يرمياه جو پهريون ايڊيشن، حزقيل جو ڪتاب، عبيدياه جو اڪثريت ۽ اها سڀ جن جو تحقيق ۾ "ٻيو يسعياه" جي نالي سان حوالو ڏنو ويو آهي، اهي سڀ هن دور ۾ لکيل هئا.

هيڪل سليماني جي ٻيهر تعمير

هخامنشي دور (332 کان 538ع)

عزير ماڻهن کي تورات پڙهي ٻڌائي رهيو آهي. گستاو ڊور پاران پينٽنگ

عزير جي ڪتاب جي مطابق، سائرس اعظم، هخامنشي سلطنت جو بادشاهه، بابل جي فتح کان هڪ سال پوءِ، سال 538 ق.م ۾ بابلي جلاوطني جو خاتمو آندو. واپس ڪندڙ يهودين جي اڳواڻي زربابل، دائود جي شاهي نسل مان هڪ شهزادو ۽ جوشوا، مندر جي اڳوڻي اعليٰ پادرين مان اولاد ڪئي، جنهن ٻئي مندر جي تعمير جي نگراني ڪيا، جيڪا سال 521 ۽ 516 ق.م. جي وچ ۾ مڪمل ٿيو.۽ هخامنشي سلطنت جي حصي جي طور تي، يهودين جي اڳوڻي بادشاهت، مختلف حدن سان، هڪ ننڍڙو علائقو ڍڪيندي، يهودين جو صوبو بڻجي وئي. همعصر عالم بتدريج واپسي جي عمل ڏانهن اشارو ڪن ٿا، جيڪي 6هين صدي ق.م. جي آخر ۽ 5هين صدي ق.م. جي شروعات تائين وڌائي وئي. فارسي يهودين جي آبادي بادشاهت جي دور کان تمام گهٽجي وئي. آثار قديمه جا سروي پنجين ۽ چوٿين صدي ق.م. دوران تقريبن 30,000 جي آبادي ڏيکارن ٿا.

آخري توريت کي وڏي پيماني تي فارسي دور (539 کان 333 ق.م يا 450-350 ق.م.) جي پيداوار طور ڏٺو وڃي ٿو،

هي اتفاق راءِ هڪ روايتي يهودي نظريي جو گونج آهي ته عزير عليه السلام، بابل کان واپسي تي يهودي برادري جا اڳواڻ، تورات جي اشاعت ۾ هڪ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو.

ٽي نبي، جيڪا يهودي روايت ۾ آخري سمجهيا وڃن ٿا هن دور ۾ سرگرم هئا: حجائي، زڪريا ۽ ملاڪي. بني اسرائيل جي آخري نبي جي وفات کانپوءِ ۽ اڃا تائين فارسي حڪمراني هيٺ، يهودي ماڻهن جي قيادت اڳواڻن جي پنجن مسلسل نسلن جي زگوٽ (جوڙن) جي هٿن ۾ منتقل ٿي وئي. اهي پهرين فارسين جي دور ۾ ۽ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾ ترقي ڪيا ۽ نتيجي طور تي، انهن مان ٻه گروه، فريسي ۽ صدوقي ٺهيا. فارسين جي دور ۾ پوءِ يونانين جي دور ۾، يهودي سڪا يهوديه ۾ يهودي سڪن جي طور تي ٺاهيا ويا.

Hellenistic period (c. 332–110 BCE)

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Hellenistic Judaism

Alexander the Great, clad as a Byzantine emperor, receives a delegation of Jewish rabbis. Miniature from the 14th-century Alexander Romance

In 332 BCE, Alexander the Great of Macedon defeated the Persians. After Alexander's death and the division of his empire among his generals, the Seleucid Kingdom was formed.

The Alexandrian conquests spread Greek culture to the Levant. During this time, currents of Judaism were influenced by Hellenistic philosophy developed from the 3rd century BCE, notably the Jewish diaspora in Alexandria, culminating in the compilation of the Septuagint. An important advocate of the symbiosis of Jewish theology and Hellenistic thought is Philo.

Hasmonean dynasty (110–63 BCE)

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Hasmonean dynasty

JUDAEA, Hasmoneans. John Hyrcanus I (Yehohanan). 135–104 BCE. Æ Prutah (13mm, 2.02 gm, 12h). "Yehohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews" (in Hebrew) in five lines within wreath / Double cornucopiae adorned with ribbons; pomegranate between horns; small A to lower left. Meshorer Group B, 11; Hendin 457.

Triggered by anti-Jewish decrees from Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes and tensions between Hellenized and conservative Jews, the Maccabean Revolt erupted in Judea in 167 BCE under the leadership of Mattathias. His son, Judas Maccabeus, recaptured Jerusalem in 164 BCE, purifying the Second Temple and reinstating sacrificial worship. The successful revolt eventually led to the formation of an independent Jewish state under the Hasmonean dynasty, which lasted from 165 to 63 BCE.

Initially governing as both political leaders and High Priests, the Hasmoneans later assumed the title of kings. They employed military campaigns and diplomacy to consolidate power. Under the rule of Alexander Jannaeus and Salome Alexandra, Hasmonean Judea reached its zenith in size and influence. However, internal strife erupted between Salome Alexandra's sons, Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, leading to civil war and appeals to Roman authorities for intervention. Responding to these appeals, Pompey led a Roman campaign of conquest and annexation, which marked the end of Hasmonean sovereignty and ushered in Roman rule over Judea.

Roman period (63 BCE – 135 CE)

اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو Herodian dynasty, History of the Jews in the Roman Empire, Roman Palestine, Judaea (Roman province) ۽Jewish–Roman wars

Hasmonean coin of Antigonus II Mattathias, depicting the Temple menorah

Judea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmoneans, but it was conquered and reorganized as a client state by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE. Roman expansion was going on in other areas as well, and it would continue for more than a hundred and fifty years. Later, Herod the Great was appointed "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate, supplanting the Hasmonean dynasty. Some of his offspring held various positions after him, known as the Herodian dynasty. Briefly, from 4 BCE to 6 CE, Herod Archelaus ruled the tetrarchy of Judea as ethnarch, the Romans denying him the title of King.

After the Census of Quirinius in 6 CE, the Roman province of Judaea was formed as a satellite of Roman Syria under the rule of a prefect (as was Roman Egypt) until 41 CE, then procurators after 44 CE. The empire was often callous and brutal in its treatment of its Jewish subjects, (see Anti-Judaism in the pre-Christian Roman Empire). In 30 CE (or 33 CE), Jesus of Nazareth, an itinerant rabbi from Galilee, and the central figure of Christianity, was put to death by crucifixion in Jerusalem under the Roman prefect of Judaea, Pontius Pilate.

For a short time Judea was reunited and semi-independent under Agrippa the Great who had good relations with both the Roman aristocracy and local Jewish citizens. After his death Judea was again annexed by Rome and his less popular son Herod Agrippa II was made ethnarch.

Reconstruction of the Second Temple, following renovations by Herod in the 1st century CE

Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans (1850 painting by David Roberts)

Roman oppressive rule, combined with economic, religious, and ethnic tensions, eventually led to the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War, also known as the Great Revolt, in 66 CE. Future emperor Vespasian quelled the rebellion in Galilee by 67 CE, capturing key strongholds. He was succeeded by his son Titus, who led the brutal siege of Jerusalem, culminating in the city's fall in 70 CE. The Romans burned Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple. The Roman victory was celebrated with a triumph in Rome, showcasing Jewish artefacts like the menorah, which were then put on display in the new Temple of Peace. The Flavian dynasty leveraged this victory for political gain, erecting monuments in Rome and minting Judaea Capta coins. The war concluded with the siege of Masada (73–74 CE). The Jewish population suffered widespread devastation, with displacement, enslavement, and Roman confiscation of Jewish-owned land.

The destruction of the Second Temple marked a cataclysmic event in Jewish history, triggering far-reaching transformations within Judaism. With the central role of sacrificial worship obliterated, religious practices shifted towards prayer, Torah study, and communal gatherings in synagogues. According to Rabbinic tradition, Yohanan ben Zakkai secured permission from the Romans to establish a center for Torah study in Yavneh, which then served as a focal point for Jewish religious and cultural life for a generation. Judaism also underwent a significant shift away from its sectarian divisions. The Sadducees and Essenes, two prominent sects in the late Second Temple period, faded into obscurity, while the traditions of the Pharisees, including their halakhic interpretations, the centrality of the Oral Torah, and belief in resurrection became the foundation of Rabbinic Judaism.

The sack of Jerusalem depicted on the inside wall of the Arch of Titus in Rome

Diaspora during the Second Temple period

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Jewish diaspora

The Jewish diaspora existed well before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and had been ongoing for centuries, with the dispersal driven by both forced expulsions and voluntary migrations. In Mesopotamia, a testimony to the beginnings of the Jewish community can be found in Joachin's ration tablets, listing provisions allotted to the exiled Judean king and his family by Nebuchadnezzar II, and further evidence are the Al-Yahudu tablets, dated to the 6th-5th centuries BCE and related to the exiles from Judea arriving after the destruction of the First Temple, though there is ample evidence for the presence of Jews in Babylonia even from 626 BCE. In Egypt, the documents from Elephantine reveal the trials of a community founded by a Persian Jewish garrison at two fortresses on the frontier during the 5th-4th centuries BCE, and according to Josephus the Jewish community in Alexandria existed since the founding of the city in the 4th century BCE by Alexander the Great. By 200 BCE, there were well established Jewish communities both in Egypt and Mesopotamia ("Babylonia" in Jewish sources) and in the two centuries that followed, Jewish populations were also present in Asia Minor, Greece, Macedonia, Cyrene, and, beginning in the middle of the 1st century BCE, in the city of Rome.

In the first centuries CE, as a result of the Jewish–Roman wars, a large number of Jews were taken as captives, sold into slavery, or compelled to flee from the regions affected by the wars, contributing to the formation and expansion of Jewish communities across the Roman Empire as well as in Arabia and Mesopotamia. Jewish communities across Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt were almost entirely obliterated due to the harsh Roman response to the Diaspora Revolt.

The New Testament Book of Acts, as well as other Pauline texts, make frequent reference to the large populations of Hellenized Jews in the cities of the Roman world. These Hellenized Jews were affected by the diaspora only in its spiritual sense, absorbing the feeling of loss and homelessness that became a cornerstone of the Jewish creed, much supported by persecutions in various parts of the world. Of critical importance to the reshaping of Jewish tradition from the Temple-based religion to the rabbinic traditions of the Diaspora, was the development of the interpretations of the Torah found in the Mishnah and Talmud.

تالمود وارو دور

پھرين يهودي بغاوت (115 کان 117ع)

During the Diaspora Revolt (115–117 CE), Jewish diaspora communities across several eastern provinces of the Roman Empire engaged in widespread rebellion. Driven by messianic fervor and hopes for the ingathering of exiles and the reconstruction of the Temple, these communities may have sought to spark a broader movement possibly aimed at returning to Judea and rebuilding Jerusalem. Ancient sources describe the revolt as extremely brutal, with cases of cannibalism and mutilation, though modern scholars often consider these accounts to be exaggerated. The Roman suppression of the revolt was marked by severe measures, including ethnic cleansing, leading to the near-total destruction of Jewish diaspora communities in Libya, Cyprus and Egypt, including the significant and influential community in Alexandria.

بار ڪوخبا بغاوت (132 کان 136ع

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو بار ڪوخبا بغاوت

A tetradrachm minted during the Bar Kokhba revolt, featuring the former Second Temple, a lulav, and the slogan 'to the freedom of Jerusalem'

From 132 to 136 CE, Judaea was the center of the Bar Kokhba revolt, triggered by Hadrian's decision to establish the pagan colony of Aelia Capitolina on the ruins of Jerusalem. Early successes led to the establishment of a short-lived Jewish state in Judea under the leadership of Simon Bar Kokhba, styled as nasi or prince of Israel. The rebel state's coinage proclaimed "Freedom of Israel" and "For the Freedom of Jerusalem", using ancient Hebrew script for nationalistic symbolism. However, the Romans soon amassed six legions and additional auxiliaries under Julius Severus, who then brutally crushed the uprising. Historical accounts report the destruction of fifty major strongholds and 985 villages, resulting in 580,000 Jewish deaths and widespread famine and disease. Archaeological research confirms the widespread destruction and depopulation of the Jewish heartland in Judea proper, where most of the Jewish population was either killed, sold into slavery, expelled, or forced to flee. The Romans also suffered heavy losses. Post-revolt, Jews were prohibited from entering Jerusalem, and Hadrian issued religious edicts, including a ban on circumcision, later repealed by Antoninus Pius.سانچو:Fix/category The province of Judaea was renamed Syria Palaestina as a punitive act against the Jews, aimed at placating non-Jewish residents and erasing Jewish historical ties to the land. Christians refused to participate in the revolt and from this point the Jews regarded Christianity as a separate religion. The Jewish defeat marked the termination of efforts to reestablish a Jewish state until the modern era.

A rabbi of this period, Simeon bar Yochai, is regarded as the author of the Zohar, the foundational text for Kabbalistic thought. However, modern scholars believe it was written in Medieval Spain.

Late Roman period in the Land of Israel

وڌيڪ ڏسو: Byzantine Palestine ۽ History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire

The relations of the Jews with the Roman Empire in the region continued to be complicated. Constantine I allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on Tisha B'Av at the Western Wall. In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched yet another revolt, provoking heavy retribution. The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the Constantinian dynasty. In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor Julian, the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who unlike his predecessors defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sasanian Persia, in keeping with his effort to foster religions other than Christianity, he ordered the Jewish Temple rebuilt. The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic Galilee earthquake of 363 and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was the common view among Christian historians of the time. Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him "Julian the Hellene". Julian's fatal wound in the Persian campaign and his consequent death had put an end to Jewish aspirations, and Julian's successors embraced Christianity through the entire timeline of Byzantine rule of Jerusalem, preventing any Jewish claims.

In 438 CE, when the Empress Eudocia removed the ban on Jews' praying at the Temple site, the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call "to the great and mighty people of the Jews" which began: "Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!" However, the Christian population of the city, who saw this as a threat to their primacy, did not allow it and a riot erupted after which they chased away the Jews from the city.

During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of Samaritan insurrections broke out across the Palaestina Prima province. Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in almost the entire annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan Revolt of 556 was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered a brutal suppression of Israelite religion.

In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an alliance with the Persians, who invaded Palaestina Prima in 614, fought at their side, overwhelmed the Byzantine garrison in Jerusalem, and were given Jerusalem to be governed as an autonomy. However, their autonomy was brief: the Jewish leader in Jerusalem was shortly assassinated during a Christian revolt and though Jerusalem was reconquered by Persians and Jews within 3 weeks, it fell into anarchy. With the consequent withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to Byzantines in 625 or 628 CE, but were massacred by Christian radicals in 629 CE, with the survivors fleeing to Egypt. The Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) control of the region was finally lost to the Muslim Arab armies in 637 CE, when Umar ibn al-Khattab completed the conquest of Akko.

Jews of pre-Muslim Babylonia (219–638 CE)

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو History of the Jews in Iraq

After the fall of Jerusalem, Babylonia would become the focus of Judaism for more than a thousand years. The first Jewish communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by Jehoiachin in 597 BCE as well as after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE. Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in 135 CE after the Bar Kokhba revolt and in the centuries after. Babylonia, where some of the largest and most prominent Jewish cities and communities were established, became the centre of Jewish life up to the 13th century. By the 1st century, Babylonia already held a speedily growing population of an estimated 1,000,000 Jews, which increased to an estimated 2 million between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from Judea, making up about 1/6 of the world Jewish population at that era. It was there that they would write the Babylonian Talmud in the languages used by the Jews of ancient Babylonia: Hebrew and Aramaic. The Jews established Talmudic Academies in Babylonia, also known as the Geonic Academies (from "Geonim", meaning "splendour" in Biblical Hebrew or "geniuses"), which became the centre for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in Babylonia from roughly 500 CE to 1038 CE. The two most famous academies were the Pumbedita Academy and the Sura Academy. Major yeshivot were also located at Nehardea and Mahuza. The Talmudic Yeshiva Academies became a main part of Jewish culture and education, and Jews continued establishing Yeshiva Academies in Western and Eastern Europe, North Africa, and in later centuries, in America and other countries around the world where Jews lived in the Diaspora. Talmudic study in Yeshiva academies, most of them located in The United States and Israel, continues today.

These Talmudic Yeshiva academies of Babylonia followed the era of the Amoraim (expounders)—the sages of the Talmud who were active (both in Judah and in Babylon) during the end of the era of the sealing of the Mishnah and until the times of the sealing of the Talmud (220–500 CE), and following the Savoraim (reasoners)—the sages of beth midrash (Torah study places) in Babylon from the end of the era of the Amoraim (5th century) and until the beginning of the era of the Geonim. The Geonim were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura and Pumbedita, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of the worldwide Jewish community in the early medieval era, in contrast to the Resh Galuta (Exilarch) who wielded secular authority over the Jews in Islamic lands. According to traditions, the Resh Galuta were descendants of Judean kings, which is why the kings of Parthia would treat them with much honour.

For the Jews of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the yeshivot of Babylonia served much the same function as the ancient Sanhedrin—that is, as a council of Jewish religious authorities. The academies were founded in pre-Islamic Babylonia under the Zoroastrian Sassanid dynasty and were located not far from the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, which at that time was the largest city in the world. After the conquest of Persia in the 7th century, the academies subsequently operated for four hundred years under the Islamic caliphate. The first gaon of Sura, according to Sherira Gaon, was Mar bar Rab Chanan, who assumed office in 609. The last gaon of Sura was Samuel ben Hofni, who died in 1034; the last gaon of Pumbedita was Hezekiah Gaon, who was tortured to death in 1040; hence the activity of the Geonim covers a period of nearly 450 years.

One of principal seats of Babylonian Judaism was Nehardea, which was then a very large city made up mostly of Jews. A very ancient synagogue, built, it was believed, by King Jehoiachin, existed in Nehardea. At Huzal, near Nehardea, there was another synagogue, not far from which could be seen the ruins of Ezra's academy. In the period before Hadrian, Akiba, on his arrival at Nehardea on a mission from the Sanhedrin, entered into a discussion with a resident scholar on a point of matrimonial law (Mishnah Yeb., end). At the same time there was at Nisibis (northern Mesopotamia), an excellent Jewish college, at the head of which stood Judah ben Bathyra, and in which many Judean scholars found refuge at the time of the persecutions. A certain temporary importance was also attained by a school at Nehar-Pekod, founded by the Judean immigrant Hananiah, nephew of Joshua ben Hananiah, which school might have been the cause of a schism between the Jews of Babylonia and those of Judea-Israel, had not the Judean authorities promptly checked Hananiah's ambition.

بازنطيني دور (324–638 CE)

يهودي سڄي رومي سلطنت ۾ پڻ پکڙيل هئا، ۽ اهو مرڪزي ۽ اوڀر ميڊيٽرينين ۾ بازنطيني حڪمراني جي دور ۾ گهٽ حد تائين جاري رهيو. بازنطيني سلطنت جي جنگجو ۽ خاص طور عيسائيت ۽ سيزرو-پاپزم يهودين سان سٺو سلوڪ نه ڪيو ۽ سلطنت ۾ ڊائاسپورا يهودين جي حالت ۽ اثر ۾ ڊرامائي طور تي گهٽتائي آئي.

يهودين کي عيسائيت ۾ تبديل ڪرڻ سرڪاري عيسائي پاليسي هئي ۽ عيسائي قيادت پنهنجي ڪوششن ۾ روم جي سرڪاري طاقت کي استعمال ڪيو. سال 351ع ۾ يهودين پنهنجي گورنر، ڪانسٽنٽيس گيلس جي اضافي دٻاءُ جي خلاف بغاوت ڪئي. گيلس بغاوت کي دٻايو ۽ گئليلي علائقي جي وڏن شهرن کي تباهه ڪيو جتي بغاوت شروع ٿي هئي. "ٽزيپوري" ۽ "لد" (ٻن وڏي قانوني اڪيڊمين جي جاءِ) ڪڏهن به بحال نه ٿي سگهي.

هن دور ۾، طبرياس ۾ ناسي، هيليل ٻيون، هڪ سرڪاري ڪئلينڊر ٺاهيو، جن ۾ چنڊ جي مهيني ڏسڻ جي ضرورت نه هئي. مهينا مقرر ڪيا ويا ۽ ڪئلينڊر کي يهوديه کان وڌيڪ اختيار جي ضرورت نه هئي. ساڳئي وقت، طبرياس ۾ يهودي اڪيڊمي، يهودي هاناسي جي موت کان پوءِ مطالعي ڪندڙ عالمن جي نسلن پاران تيار ڪيل گڏيل مشناه، برتوت، وضاحت ۽ تشريحون گڏ ڪرڻ شروع ڪيون. متن کي مشنا جي ترتيب مطابق ترتيب ڏنو ويو: مشنا جي هر پيراگراف کان پوءِ ان ۾ مشناه سان لاڳاپيل سڀني تشريحون، ڪهاڻين ۽ جوابن جو هڪ مجموعو هو. هن متن کي يروشلم جي تلمود سڏيو ويندو آهي.

يهوديه جي يهودين کي شهنشاهه جولين دي اپوسٽيٽ ​​جي حڪمراني دوران سرڪاري ظلم کان ٿوري مهلت ملي. جولين جي پاليسي رومن سلطنت کي هيلينزم ڏانهن موٽائڻ هئي ۽ هن يهودين کي يروشلم کي ٻيهر تعمير ڪرڻ جي ترغيب ڏنو. جيئن ته جولين جي حڪمراني صرف سال 361 کان 363ع تائين رهي، يهودي سلطنت تي رومن عيسائي حڪمراني بحال ٿيڻ کان اڳ ڪافي تعمير نه ڪري سگهيا. سال 398ع ۾ سينٽ جان ڪرائسوسٽم جي پيٽر آرخ جي حيثيت سان تقدير سان شروع ٿي، يهودين خلاف عيسائي بيان بازي تيز ٿي وئي؛ هن "يهودين جي خلاف" ۽ "مجسمن تي، هوملي 17" جهڙن عنوانن سان واعظ ڏنا، جن ۾ يوحنا "يهودي بيماري" جي خلاف تبليغ ڪري ٿو. اهڙي گرم ٻولي عيسائي بي اعتمادي ۽ وڏين يهودي آبادين، جهڙوڪ انطاڪيا ۽ قسطنطنيه ۾، جي خلاف نفرت جي ماحول ۾ حصو ورتو.

پنجين صدي جي شروعات ۾، شهنشاهه ٿيوڊوسس يهودين مٿان سرڪاري طور تي ظلم کي قائم ڪرڻ لاءِ ڪجهه فرمان جاري ڪيا. يهودين کي غلام رکڻ، سائناگوگ ٺاهڻ، سرڪاري عهدو رکڻ يا يهودي ۽ غير يهودي جي وچ ۾ ڪيس هلائڻ جي اجازت نه هئي، يهودي ۽ غير يهودي جي وچ ۾ شادي کي موت جي سزا قرار ڏنو ويو، جنهن جو مقصد عيسائين کي يهوديت ۾ تبديل ڪرڻ هو. ٿيوڊوسيس يهودي ڪائونسل کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ ناسي جي عهدي کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيو. شهنشاهه جسٽينين جي دور ۾، اختيارين يهودين جي شهري حقن کي وڌيڪ محدود ڪيو ۽ انهن جي مذهبي مراعات کي ختم ڪيو. شهنشاهه سائناگوگ جي اندروني معاملن ۾ مداخلت ڪئي، مثال طور، الاهي عبادت ۾ عبراني ٻولي جي استعمال کان منع ڪئي ۽ جنهن پابندين جي نافرماني ڪئي انهن کي جسماني سزا، جلاوطني ۽ ملڪيت جي نقصان جي ڌمڪي ڏني وئي. بوريم ۾ يهودين، جنهن ونڊالن جي خلاف مهم ۾ بازنطيني جنرل بيليساريس جي مزاحمت ڪئي، کي عيسائيت قبول ڪرڻ تي مجبور ڪيو ويو ۽ انهن جي سائناگوگ کي چرچ ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويو.

جسٽينين ۽ سندس جانشين کي يهوديه صوبي کان ٻاهر خدشن جي باوجود، انهن ضابطن کي لاڳو ڪرڻ لاءِ هن وٽ ڪافي فوج نه هئي. نتيجي طور، پنجين صدي هڪ اهڙو دور هو جڏهن، ڪيترن ئي خوبصورت موزائيڪ فرش سان سائناگوگن جي تعمير جي هڪ لهر ٺاهي وئي. يهودين بازنطيني ثقافت جي امير فن جي شڪلن کي اختيار ڪيو. ان دور جي يهودي موزائيڪ ماڻهن، جانورن، مينوراه، جوتش ۽ بائبل جي ڪردارن کي پيش ڪن ٿا. انهن سائناگوگن جي فرشن جون بهترين مثالون بيت الفا (جنهن ۾ ابراهيم پاران پنهنجي پٽ اسحاق جي بدران هڪ فديه سان گڏ هڪ رڍ جي قرباني ڏيڻ جو منظر شامل آهي)، طبرياس، بيت شين ۽ زِپوري ۾ مليون آهن.

بازنطيني حڪمراني هيٺ يهودين جو غير يقيني وجود گهڻو وقت برقرار نه رهيو. گهڻو ڪري دور دراز عرب جزيري نما (جتي يهودين جي وڏي آبادي رهندي هئي) مان اسلام جي عروج جي ڪري. مسلم خلافت سال 636ع ۾ يرموڪ جي جنگ ۾ فتح جي ڪجهه سالن اندر بازنطيني ماڻهن کي مقدس سرزمين (يا ليوانت، اسرائيل، اردن، لبنان ۽ شام) مان ڪڍي ڇڏيو. ايندڙ صدين ۾ يهودي باقي بازنطيني علائقن کان ڀڄي، اسلامي خلافت ۾ رهائش اختيار ڪيا.

اناطوليا جي يهودين کي زبردستي عيسائيت ۾ تبديل ڪرڻ جي شهنشاهه جي ڪجهه ڪوششن کان بازنطيني سلطنت ۾ يهودي برادري جو قد متاثر نه ٿيو، ڇاڪاڻ ته انهن ڪوششن کي تمام گهٽ ڪاميابي ملي. تاريخدان بازنطيني حڪمراني هيٺ ايشيا ڪوچڪ ۾ يهودين جي حيثيت جي تحقيق جاري رکيا آهن. اولهائين يورپ وانگر ان وقت جي مقامي قسم جي ڪنهن به منظم ظلم (نسل ڪشي، سزا، اجتماعي بي دخلي، وغيره) بازنطيني سلطنت ۾ رڪارڊ نه ڪيو ويو آهن. قسطنطنيه جي يهودي آبادي جو گهڻو حصو سلطان محمد فاتح پاران شهر جي فتح کان پوءِ به پنهنجي جاءِ تي رهيو.

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  بروڪلين ميوزيم ۾ 6هين جي يادگار "مينوراه"
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  بيت الفا جي سائناگوگ ۾ 5هين صدي جو هڪ موزائيڪ فرش
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  زيپوري سائناگوگ ۾ پنجين صدي جو موزائيڪ
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  حمت گادير سائناگوگ مان هٿ آيل موزائيڪ گذرگاهه (6 هين صدي)

ڊاسپورا برادريون

ڪوچين جي يهودين جي روايت موجب ته انهن جي برادري جون پاڙون سال 72ع ۾، ٻئي مندر جي تباهي کان پوءِ، شنگلي ۾ يهودين جي آمد سان واپس وڃن ٿيون. اهو پڻ ٻڌائي ٿو ته هڪ مقامي تامل بادشاهه، چيرامن پيرومل نينار، پاران انهن جي اڳواڻ، جوزف ربان، جي ماتحت برادري کي خودمختياري ڏيڻ جو مطلب، هڪ يهودي بادشاهت، سمجهيو ويندو هو. سال 379 عيسوي ۾، اتي پهريون سائناگوگ سال 1668ع ۾ ٺاهيو ويو هو. ٿامس اپاسٽل پاران ڪيرالا ۾ هندستاني عيسائيت جي بنياد جي ڏندڪٿا ٻڌائي ٿي ته اتي پهچڻ تي هن جي ملاقات هڪ مقامي ڇوڪري سان ٿي جيڪا عبراني ٻولي سمجهندي هئي.

شايد چوٿين صدي ۾ سيمن جي بادشاهي، جيڪا جديد ايٿوپيا ۾ هڪ يهودي قوم قائم ڪئي هئي، 17هين صدي تائين قائم رهي.

وچين دور

اسلامي دور

قاهره جينيزا جو ٽڪرو، ڪيمبرج يونيورسٽي لائبريري

سال 638 عيسوي ۾ بازنطيني سلطنت سر زمين شام جو ڪنٽرول وڃائي ڇڏيو. خليفي عمر رضي الله تعالى عنه جي اڳواڻي ۾ عرب اسلامي سلطنت يروشلم، ميسوپوٽيميا، سر زمين شام (شام، اردن ۽ فلسطين) ۽ مصر جي زمينن کي فتح ڪيو. هڪ سياسي نظام جي طور تي، اسلام يهودين جي معاشي، سماجي ۽ ذهني ترقي لاءِ بنيادي طور تي نوان حالات پيدا ڪيا.عمر رضي الله تعالى عنه يهودين کي، 500 سالن جي وقفي کان پوءِ، يروشلم ۾ پنهنجي موجودگي کي ٻيهر قائم ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني (ڏسو:عمر جي يقين دهاني). يهودي روايتون عمر کي هڪ مهربان حڪمران جي طور تي ڏسي ٿي ۽ مدراش (نستاروت دي-راو شمعون بار يوحائي) کيس "بني اسرائيل جي دوست" طور حوالو ڏئي ٿو.

عرب جاگرافيدان المقدسي جي مطابق، يهودي "سڪن جي چڪاس ڪندڙ، رنگ ڪندڙ، چمڙي جا ماهر ۽ مهاجن" طور ڪم ڪندا هئا. فاطمي دور ۾، ڪيترن ئي يهودي عملدارن حڪومت ۾ خدمتون سرانجام ڏنيون. پروفيسر موشئ گل جو خيال آهي، ته 7هين صدي ۾ عرب فتح جي وقت، يروشلم جي آبادي جي اڪثريت عيسائي ۽ يهودي هئي.

هن وقت دوران يهودي سڄي قديم بابل ۾ خوشحال برادرين ۾ رهندا هئا. جيونڪ دور (650-1250 عيسوي) ۾، بابلي يشيوا اڪيڊميون يهودي سکيا جا مکيه مرڪز هئا. جيونم (جن جو معنيٰ آهي "شان" يا "جينيئس") انهن اسڪولن جا سربراهه هئا. انهن کي يهودي قانون ۾ اعليٰ اختيارين طور تسليم ڪيو ويو. 7هين صدي ۾، غير مسلمن جي زمينن تي حڪمران جزيو (Poll Tax) عائد ڪيو، جن جي ڪري بابلي يهودين جي ڳوٺاڻن علائقن مان بغداد جهڙن شهرن ڏانهن وڏي پيماني تي لڏپلاڻ ٿي. ان جي نتيجي ۾ يهودي برادري ۾ وڌيڪ دولت ۽ بين الاقوامي اثر ۽ انهي سان گڏ يهودي مفڪرن جو هڪ وڌيڪ عالمگير نقطه نظر،جهڙوڪ سعديه گاون، جيڪو هاڻي پهريون ڀيرو مغربي فلسفي سان تمام گهڻي دلچسپي رکن ٿا، پيدا ٿيو. جڏهن 10هين صدي ۾ عباسي خلافت ۽ بغداد شهر جو زوال ٿيو، ڪيترائي بابلي يهودي رومي ڀونوچ سمنڊ جي علائقن ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪيا. سڄي يهودي دنيا ۾ بابلي يهودي رسمن جي پکيڙ ۾ حصو ورتو.

اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور (711-1031)

{{اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور}}

اندلس ۾ يهودي ثقافت جو سونهري دور يورپ ۾ وچين دور سان گڏ هو، جيڪو سڃي جزيري نما آئبيريا تي مسلمانن جي حڪمراني جو دور هو.

Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain (711–1031)

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain

The golden age of Jewish culture in Spain coincided with the Middle Ages in Europe, a period of Muslim rule throughout much of the Iberian Peninsula. During that time, Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed.

A period of tolerance thus dawned for the Jews of the Iberian Peninsula, whose number was considerably augmented by immigration from Africa in the wake of the Muslim conquest. Especially after 912, during the reign of Abd-ar-Rahman III and his son, al-Hakam II, the Jews prospered, devoting themselves to the service of the Caliphate of Córdoba, to the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially to trading in silk and slaves, in this way promoting the prosperity of the country. Jewish economic expansion was unparalleled. In Toledo, Jews were involved in translating Arabic texts to the Romance languages, as well as translating Greek and Hebrew texts into Arabic. Jews also contributed to botany, geography, medicine, mathematics, poetry and philosophy. According to Bernard Lewis:

Generally, the Jewish people were allowed to practice their religion and live according to the laws and scriptures of their community. Furthermore, the restrictions to which they were subject were social and symbolic rather than tangible and practical in character. That is to say, these regulations served to define the relationship between the two communities, and not to oppress the Jewish population.

'Abd al-Rahman's court physician and minister was Hasdai ben Isaac ibn Shaprut, the patron of Menahem ben Saruq, Dunash ben Labrat, and other Jewish scholars and poets. Jewish thought during this period flourished under famous figures such as Samuel Ha-Nagid, Moses ibn Ezra, Solomon ibn Gabirol Judah Halevi and Moses Maimonides. During 'Abd al-Rahman's term of power, the scholar Moses ben Enoch was appointed rabbi of Córdoba, and as a consequence al-Andalus became the centre of Talmudic study, and Córdoba the meeting-place of Jewish savants.

The Golden Age ended with the invasion of al-Andalus by the Almohads, a conservative dynasty originating in North Africa, who were highly intolerant of religious minorities.

Jews and the Crusades (1099–1260)

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو History of the Jews and the Crusades

پڻ ڏسو: Siege of Jerusalem (1099)

Capture of Jerusalem, 1099

Sermonical messages to avenge the death of Jesus encouraged Christians to participate in the Crusades. The 12th-century Jewish narration from R. Solomon ben Samson records that crusaders en route to the Holy Land decided that before combating the Ishmaelites they would massacre the Jews residing in their midst to avenge the crucifixion of Christ. The massacres began at Rouen and Jewish communities in Rhine Valley were seriously affected.

Crusading attacks were made upon Jews in the territory around Heidelberg. A huge loss of Jewish life took place. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity and many committed suicide to avoid baptism. A major driving factor behind the choice to commit suicide was the Jewish realisation that upon being slain their children could be taken to be raised as Christians. The Jews were living in the middle of Christian lands and felt this danger acutely. This massacre is seen as the first in a sequence of antisemitic events which culminated in the Holocaust. Jewish populations felt that they had been abandoned by their Christian neighbours and rulers during the massacres and lost faith in all promises and charters.

Many Jews chose self-defence. But their means of self-defence were limited and their casualties only increased. Most of the forced conversions proved ineffective. Many Jews reverted to their original faith later. The pope protested this but Emperor Henry IV agreed to permitting these reversions. The massacres began a new epoch for Jewry in Christendom. The Jews had preserved their faith from social pressure, now they had to preserve it at sword point. The massacres during the crusades strengthened Jewry from within spiritually. The Jewish perspective was that their struggle was Israel's struggle to hallow the name of God.

In 1099, Jews helped the Arabs to defend Jerusalem against the Crusaders. When the city fell, the Crusaders gathered many Jews in a synagogue and set it on fire. In Haifa, the Jews almost single-handedly defended the town against the Crusaders, holding out for a month, (June–July 1099). At this time there were Jewish communities scattered all over the country, including Jerusalem, Tiberias, Ramleh, Ashkelon, Caesarea, and Gaza. As Jews were not allowed to hold land during the Crusader period, they worked at trades and commerce in the coastal towns during times of quiescence. Most were artisans: glassblowers in Sidon, furriers and dyers in Jerusalem.

During this period, the Masoretes of Tiberias established the niqqud, a system of diacritics used to represent vowels or distinguish between alternative pronunciations of letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Numerous piyutim and midrashim were recorded in Palestine at this time.

Maimonides wrote that in 1165 he visited Jerusalem and went to the Temple Mount, where he prayed in the "great, holy house". Maimonides established a yearly holiday for himself and his sons, the 6th of Cheshvan, commemorating the day he went up to pray on the Temple Mount, and another, the 9th of Cheshvan, commemorating the day he merited to pray at the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron.

In 1141 Yehuda Halevi issued a call to Jews to emigrate to Palestine and took on the long journey himself. After a stormy passage from Córdoba, he arrived in Egyptian Alexandria, where he was enthusiastically greeted by friends and admirers. At Damietta, he had to struggle against his heart, and the pleadings of his friend Ḥalfon ha-Levi, that he remain in Egypt, where he would be free from intolerant oppression. He started on the rough route overland. He was met along the way by Jews in Tyre and Damascus. Jewish legend relates that as he came near Jerusalem, overpowered by the sight of the Holy City, he sang his most beautiful elegy, the celebrated "Zionide" (Zion ha-lo Tish'ali). At that instant, an Arab had galloped out of a gate and rode him down; he was killed in the accident.سانچو:Fix/category

Mamluk period (1260–1517)

Nahmanides is recorded as settling in the Old City of Jerusalem in 1267. He moved to Acre, where he was active in spreading Jewish learning, which was at that time neglected in the Holy Land. He gathered a circle of pupils around him, and people came in crowds, even from the district of the Euphrates, to hear him. Karaites were said to have attended his lectures, among them Aaron ben Joseph the Elder. He later became one of the greatest Karaite authorities. Shortly after Nahmanides' arrival in Jerusalem, he addressed a letter to his son Nahman, in which he described the desolation of the Holy City. At the time, it had only two Jewish inhabitants—two brothers, dyers by trade. In a later letter from Acre, Nahmanides counsels his son to cultivate humility, which he considers to be the first of virtues. In another, addressed to his second son, who occupied an official position at the Castilian court, Nahmanides recommends the recitation of the daily prayers and warns above all against immorality. Nahmanides died after reaching seventy-six, and his remains were interred at Haifa, by the grave of Yechiel of Paris.

Yechiel had emigrated to Acre in 1260, along with his son and a large group of followers. There he established the Talmudic academy Midrash haGadol d'Paris. He is believed to have died there between 1265 and 1268. In 1488 Obadiah ben Abraham, commentator on the Mishnah, arrived in Jerusalem; this marked a new period of return for the Jewish community in the land.

Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو History of the Jews in Spain

پڻ ڏسو: Islam and Judaism, Mizrahi Jew, ۽ History of the Jews under Muslim rule

Sephardic Hebrew Bible from Spain, 1300

During the Middle Ages, Jews were generally better treated by Islamic rulers than Christian ones. Despite second-class citizenship, Jews played prominent roles in Muslim courts, and experienced a Golden Age in Moorish Spain about 900–1100, though the situation deteriorated after that time. Riots resulting in the deaths of Jews did however occur in North Africa through the centuries and especially in Morocco, Libya and Algeria, where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos.

During the 11th century, Muslims in Spain conducted pogroms against the Jews; those occurred in Cordoba in 1011 and in Granada in 1066. During the Middle Ages, the governments of Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen enacted decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues. At certain times, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad.سانچو:Fix/category The Almohads, who had taken control of much of Islamic Iberia by 1172, surpassed the Almoravides in fundamentalist outlook. They treated the dhimmis harshly. They expelled both Jews and Christians from Morocco and Islamic Spain. Faced with the choice of death or conversion, many Jews emigrated. Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled south and east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.سانچو:Fix/category

Europe

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو History of European Jews in the Middle Ages

11th century mishnah codex from Italy, Biblioteca Palatina, Parma

According to James P. Carrol, "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."

Jewish populations have existed in Europe, especially in the area of the former Roman Empire, from very early times. As Jewish males had emigrated, some sometimes took wives from local populations, as is shown by the various MtDNA, compared to Y-DNA among Jewish populations. These groups were joined by traders and later on by members of the diaspora.سانچو:Fix/category Records of Jewish communities in France (see History of the Jews in France) and Germany (see History of the Jews in Germany) date from the 4th century, and substantial Jewish communities in Spain were noted even earlier.سانچو:Fix/category

The historian Norman Cantor and other 20th-century scholars dispute the tradition that the Middle Ages was a uniformly difficult time for Jews. Before the Church became fully organized as an institution with an increasing array of rules, early medieval society was tolerant. Between 800 and 1100, an estimated 1.5 million Jews lived in Christian Europe. As they were not Christians, they were not included as a division of the feudal system of clergy, knights and serfs. This means that they did not have to satisfy the oppressive demands for labour and military conscription that Christian commoners suffered. In relations with the Christian society, the Jews were protected by kings, princes and bishops, because of the crucial services they provided in three areas: finance, administration and medicine. The lack of political strengths did leave Jews vulnerable to exploitation through extreme taxation.

Christian scholars interested in the Bible consulted with Talmudic rabbis. As the Roman Catholic Church strengthened as an institution, the Franciscan and Dominican preaching orders were founded, and there was a rise of competitive middle-class, town-dwelling Christians. By 1300, the friars and local priests staged the Passion Plays during Holy Week, which depicted Jews (in contemporary dress) killing Christ, according to Gospel accounts. From this period, persecution of Jews and deportations became endemic. Around 1500, Jews found relative security and a renewal of prosperity in present-day Poland.

After 1300, Jews suffered more discrimination and persecution in Christian Europe. Europe's Jewry was mainly urban and literate. The Christians were inclined to regard Jews as obstinate deniers of the truth because in their view the Jews were expected to know of the truth of the Christian doctrines from their knowledge of the Jewish scriptures. Jews were aware of the pressure to accept Christianity. As Catholics were forbidden by the church to loan money for interest, some Jews became prominent moneylenders. Christian rulers gradually saw the advantage of having such a class of people who could supply capital for their use without being liable to excommunication. As a result, the money trade of western Europe became a speciality of the Jews. But, in almost every instance when Jews acquired large amounts through banking transactions, during their lives or upon their deaths, the king would take it over. Jews became imperialسانچو:-"servi cameræسانچو:-", the property of the King, who might present them and their possessions to princes or cities.

Jews were frequently massacred and exiled from various European countries. The persecution hit its first peak during the Crusades. In the People's Crusade (1096) flourishing Jewish communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed. In the Second Crusade (1147) the Jews in France were subject to frequent massacres. They were also subjected to attacks by the Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320. The Crusades were followed by massive expulsions, including the expulsion of the Jews from England in 1290; in 1396 100,000 Jews were expelled from France; and in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Over this time many Jews in Europe, either fleeing or being expelled, migrated to Poland, where they prospered into another Golden Age.

In Italy, Jews were allowed to live in Venice but were required to live in a ghetto, and the practice spread across Italy (see Cum nimis absurdum) and was adopted in many places in Catholic Europe. Jews outside the Ghetto often had to wear a yellow star.

Expulsions of the Jews of Spain and Portugal

وڌيڪ ڏسو: Expulsion of Jews from Spain ۽ Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal

At the Feet of the Saviour, massacre of Jews in Toledo, oil on canvas by Vicente Cutanda (1887)

فائل:Matanza de judíos en Barcelona - año 1391.jpg

Slaughter of Jews in Barcelona in 1391 by Josep Segrelles, ت. 1910

Expulsion of the Jews in 1497, in a 1917 watercolour by Alfredo Roque Gameiro

Burning of Crypto-Jews in Lisbon, Portugal

Significant repression of Spain's numerous community occurred during the 14th century, notably a major pogrom in 1391 which resulted in the majority of Spain's 300,000 Jews converting to Catholicism. With the conquest of the Muslim Kingdom of Granada in 1492, the Catholic monarchs issued the Alhambra Decree, and Spain's remaining 100,000 Jews were forced to choose between conversion and exile. The expulsion of the Jews of Spain, is regarded by Jews as the worst catastrophe between the destruction of Jerusalem in 73 CE and the Holocaust of the 1940s.

As a result, an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 Jews left Spain, the remainder joining Spain's already numerous Converso community. Perhaps a quarter of a million Conversos thus were gradually absorbed by the dominant Catholic culture, although those among them who secretly practised Judaism were subject to 40 years of intense repression by the Spanish Inquisition. This was particularly the case up until 1530, after which the trials of Conversos by the Inquisition dropped to 3% of the total. Similar expulsions of Sephardic Jews occurred 1493 in Sicily (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Spanish Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire and North Africa and Portugal. A small number also settled in Holland and England.

The expulsion followed a long process of expulsions and bans from what are now England, France, Germany, Austria, and Holland. In January 1492, the last Muslim state was defeated in Spain and six months later the Jews of Spain (the largest community in the world) were required to convert or leave without their property. 100,000 converted with many continuing to secretly practice Judaism, for which the Catholic church's inquisition (led by Tomás de Torquemada) now mandated a sentence of death by public burning. 175,000 left Spain.

Many Spanish Jews moved to North Africa, Poland and the Ottoman Empire, especially Thessaloniki (now in Greece) which became the world's largest Jewish city. Some groups headed to the Middle East and Palestine, within the domains of the Ottoman Empire. About 100,000 Spanish Jews were allowed into Portugal, however five years later, their children were seized and they were given the choice of conversion or departing without them.

ابتدائي جديد دور

Historians who study modern Jewry have identified four different paths by which European Jews were "modernized" and thus integrated into the mainstream of European society. A common approach has been to view the process through the lens of the European Enlightenment as Jews faced the promise and the challenges posed by political emancipation. Scholars that use this approach have focused on two social types as paradigms for the decline of Jewish tradition and as agents of the sea changes in Jewish culture that led to the collapse of the ghetto. The first of these two social types is the Court Jew who is portrayed as a forerunner of the modern Jew, having achieved integration with and participation in the proto-capitalist economy and court society of central European states such as the Habsburg Empire. In contrast to the cosmopolitan Court Jew, the second social type presented by historians of modern Jewry is the maskil, (learned person), a proponent of the Haskalah (Enlightenment). This narrative sees the maskil's pursuit of secular scholarship and his rationalistic critiques of rabbinic tradition as laying a durable intellectual foundation for the secularization of Jewish society and culture. The established paradigm has been one in which Ashkenazic Jews entered modernity through a self-conscious process of westernization led by "highly atypical, Germanized Jewish intellectuals". Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements and planted the seeds of Zionism while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided. At around the same time that Haskalah was developing, Hasidic Judaism was spreading as a movement that preached a world view nearly opposed to the Haskalah.

In the 1990s, the concept of the "Port Jew" has been suggested as an "alternate path to modernity" that was distinct from the European Haskalah. In contrast to the focus on Ashkenazic Germanized Jews, the concept of the Port Jew focused on the Sephardi conversos who fled the Inquisition and resettled in European port towns on the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Eastern seaboard of the United States.

Court Jews

Court Jews were Jewish bankers or businessmen who lent money and handled the finances of some of the Christian European noble houses. Corresponding historical terms are Jewish bailiff and shtadlan.

Examples of what would be later called court Jews emerged when local rulers used services of Jewish bankers for short-term loans. They lent money to nobles and in the process gained social influence. Noble patrons of court Jews employed them as financiers, suppliers, diplomats and trade delegates. Court Jews could use their family connections, and connections between each other, to provision their sponsors with, among other things, food, arms, ammunition and precious metals. In return for their services, court Jews gained social privileges, including up to noble status for themselves, and could live outside the Jewish ghettos. Some nobles wanted to keep their bankers in their own courts. And because they were under noble protection, they were exempted from rabbinical jurisdiction.

From medieval times, court Jews could amass personal fortunes and gained political and social influence. Sometimes they were also prominent people in the local Jewish community and could use their influence to protect and influence their brethren. Sometimes they were the only Jews who could interact with the local high society and present petitions of the Jews to the ruler. However, the court Jew had social connections and influence in the Christian world mainly through his Christian patrons. Due to the precarious position of Jews, some nobles could just ignore their debts. If the sponsoring noble died, his Jewish financier could face exile or execution.سانچو:Fix/category

Port Jews

The Port Jew is a descriptive term for Jews who were involved in the seafaring and maritime economy of Europe, especially during the 17th and 18th centuries. Helen Fry suggests that they can be considered "the earliest modern Jews". According to Fry, Port Jews frequently arrived as "refugees from the Inquisition" and the expulsion of Jews from Iberia. They were allowed to settle in port cities because merchants granted them permission to trade in ports such as Amsterdam, London, Trieste and Hamburg. Fry notes that their connections to the Jewish Diaspora and their expertise in maritime trade made them particularly valuable to the mercantilist governments of Europe. Lois Dubin describes Port Jews as Jewish merchants who were "valued for their engagement in the international maritime trade upon which such cities thrived". Sorkin and others have characterized the socio-cultural profile of these men as marked by a flexibility towards religion and a "reluctant cosmopolitanism that was alien to both traditional and 'enlightened' Jewish identities".

From the 16th to the 18th century, Jewish merchants dominated the chocolate and vanilla trade, exporting to Jewish centres across Europe, mainly Amsterdam, Bayonne, Bordeaux, Hamburg and Livorno.

Ottoman Empire

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire

During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews were the most prominent under the millets', the apogee of Jewish influence could arguably be the appointment of Joseph Nasi to Sanjak-bey (governor, a rank usually only held by Muslims) of the island of Naxos.

At the time of the Battle of Yarmuk when the Levant passed under Muslim Rule, thirty Jewish communities existed in Haifa, Sh'chem, Hebron, Ramleh, Gaza, Jerusalem, and many in the north. Safed became a spiritual centre for the Jews and the Shulchan Aruch was compiled there as well as many Kabbalistic texts. The first Hebrew printing press, and the first printing in Western Asia began in 1577.

Jews lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey, but more geographically either Anatolia or Asia Minor) for more than 2,400 years. Initial prosperity in Hellenistic times had faded under Christian Byzantine rule, but recovered somewhat under the rule of the various Muslim governments that displaced and succeeded rule from Constantinople. For much of the Ottoman period, Turkey was a safe haven for Jews fleeing persecution, and it continues to have a small Jewish population today. The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economical prosperity at times but were widely persecuted at other times was summarised by G. E. Von Grunebaum:

It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizeable number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations, attempted forced conversions, or pogroms.

Russia, Poland, and Eastern Europe

وڌيڪ ڏسو: History of the Jews in Poland, History of the Jews in Russia, History of the Jews in Ukraine, History of the Jews in Lithuania, ۽ History of the Jews in Romania

In the 17th century, there were many significant Jewish populations in Western and Central Europe. The relatively tolerant Poland had the largest Jewish population in Europe that dated back to the 13th century, and enjoyed relative prosperity and freedom for nearly four hundred years. However, the calm situation ended when Polish and Lithuanian Jews of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were slaughtered in the hundreds of thousands by Ukrainian Cossacks during the Khmelnytsky Uprising (1648) and by the Swedish wars (1655). Driven by these and other persecutions, some Jews moved back to Western Europe in the 17th century, notably to Amsterdam. The last ban on Jewish residency in a European nation was revoked in 1654, but periodic expulsions from individual cities still occurred, and Jews were often restricted from land ownership, or forced to live in ghettos.

With the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century, the Polish-Jewish population was split between the Russian Empire, Austria-Hungary, and German Prussia, which divided Poland among themselves.

European Enlightenment and Haskalah (18th century)

Moses Mendelssohn (in red coat), Lavater (at right) and Lessing (standing), in an imaginary portrait by the Jewish artist Moritz Daniel Oppenheim (1856), Magnes Collection of Jewish Art and Life

During the period of the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, significant changes occurred within the Jewish community. The Haskalah movement paralleled the wider Enlightenment, as Jews in the 18th century began to campaign for emancipation from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. Secular and scientific education was added to the traditional religious instruction received by students, and interest in a national Jewish identity, including a revival in the study of Jewish history and Hebrew, started to grow. Among the prominient Haskalah intellectuals were Moses Mendelssohn, Naphtali Hirz Wessely, Isaac Satanow and Isaac Euchel.

Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements in Judaism and planted the seeds of Zionism while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided.

At around the same time another movement was born, one preaching almost the opposite of Haskalah, Hasidic Judaism. Hasidic Judaism began in the 18th century by Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov, and quickly gained a following with its more exuberant, mystical approach to religion. These two movements, and the traditional orthodox approach to Judaism from which they spring, formed the basis for the modern divisions within Jewish observance.

At the same time, the outside world was changing, and debates began over the potential emancipation of the Jews (granting them equal rights). The first country to do so was France, during the French Revolution in 1789. Even so, Jews were expected to assimilate, not continue their traditions. This ambivalence is demonstrated in the famous speech of Clermont-Tonnerre before the National Assembly in 1789:

We must refuse everything to the Jews as a nation and accord everything to Jews as individuals. We must withdraw recognition from their judges; they should only have our judges. We must refuse legal protection to the maintenance of the so-called laws of their Judaic organization; they should not be allowed to form in the state either a political body or an order. They must be citizens individually. But, some will say to me, they do not want to be citizens. Well then! If they do not want to be citizens, they should say so, and then, we should banish them. It is repugnant to have in the state an association of non-citizens, and a nation within the nation...

Hasidic Judaism

پڻ ڏسو: Mitnagdim

Hasidic Jews praying in the synagogue on Yom Kippur, by Maurycy Gottlieb

Hasidic Judaism is a branch of Orthodox Judaism that promotes spirituality and joy through the popularisation and internalization of Jewish mysticism as the fundamental aspects of the Jewish faith. Hasidism comprises part of contemporary Ultra-Orthodox Judaism, alongside the previous Talmudic Lithuanian-Yeshiva approach and the Oriental Sephardi tradition. It was founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov as a reaction against overly legalistic Judaism. Opposite to this, Hasidic teachings cherished the sincerity and concealed holiness of the unlettered common folk, and their equality with the scholarly elite. The emphasis on the Immanent Divine presence in everything gave new value to prayer and deeds of kindness, alongside Rabbinic supremacy of study, and replaced historical mystical (kabbalistic) and ethical (musar) asceticism and admonishment with optimism, encouragement, and daily fervour. This populist emotional revival accompanied the elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine Panentheism, through intellectual articulation of inner dimensions of mystical thought. The adjustment of Jewish values sought to add to required standards of ritual observance, while relaxing others where inspiration predominated. Its communal gatherings celebrate soulful song and storytelling as forms of mystical devotion.سانچو:Fix/category

اڻويهين صدي

An 1806 French print depicts Napoleon Bonaparte emancipating the Jews.

Though persecution still existed, Jewish emancipation spread throughout Europe in the 19th century. Napoleon invited Jews to leave the Jewish ghettos in Europe and seek refuge in the newly created tolerant political regimes that offered equality under Napoleonic Law (see Napoleon and the Jews). Gradually all European nations established in constitutions the principle of equality under the law and abolished all restrictions for Jews.

A caricature by Charles Lucien Léandre (France, 1898) showing Rothschild with the world in his hands

Jews now could own land and enter the civil service. The abolition of restraints on political activism and the broadening of the electoral franchise on the basis of citizenship, not religion, made Jews most visible among liberal, radical, and Marxist (Social Democratic) political parties.

For centuries, so-called court Jews acted as the principal financiers for the European aristocracys. In the 1760s, one of them, Mayer Amschel Rothschild, established a banking business in Germany that eventually became a vast international conglomerate and yield one of the largest family fortunes in world history. Thus the name of the Rothschilds became synonymous with Jewish financial power. Across Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, other Jews also created a number of influential banks.

The most important branch of Jewish economic life in Eastern Europe was trade. While most remained small shopkeepers, stallholders, and peddlers, others became owners of department stores and shopping arcades. During the 19th century Jews began to move from rural regions to cities, this contributed to the decline of traditional Jewish tavernkeeping. Jews made up a considerable proportion of all craftsmen in the Russian Empire and Galicia during the 19th century, but with the spread of industrialization large factories tended to squeeze out small Jewish-run workshops, and only limited numbers of Jews became employees in these modern factories. Jews were considered less desirable employees since they did not want to work on Saturdays and tended to organize into unions to demand improved working conditions, the foundation of the Bund in the Russian Empire in 1897 strengthened this process.

The economic achivements of Jews in the 19th century created the impression for some that Jews were being overrepresented in such lucrative occupations as finance, banking, trade, industry, medicine, law, journalism, art, music, literature, and theater. Despite increasing integration of the Jews with secular society, a new form of antisemitism emerged, based on the ideas of race and nationhood rather than the religious hatred of the Middle Ages. This form of antisemitism held that Jews were a separate and inferior race from the Aryan people of Western Europe, and led to the emergence of political parties in France, Germany, and Austria-Hungary that campaigned on a platform of rolling back emancipation. This form of antisemitism emerged frequently in European culture, most famously in the Dreyfus Trial in France.

During this period, Jewish migration to the United States (see American Jews) created a large new community mostly freed of the restrictions of Europe. Over 2 million Jews arrived in the United States between 1890 and 1924, most from the Russian Empire and Galicia. A similar case occurred in the southern tip of the continent, specifically in the countries of Argentina and Uruguay.

ويهين صدي

جديد صيهونيت

Theodor Herzl, visionary of the Jewish State, in Basel, photographed during Fifth Zionist Congress in December 1901, by Ephraim Moses Lilien.

During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to Ottoman Syria with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in Palestine and fulfilling the biblical prophecies related to Shivat Tzion. In 1882 the first Zionist settlement—Rishon LeZion—was founded by immigrants who belonged to the "Hovevei Zion" movement. Later on, the "Bilu" movement established many other settlements in Palestine.

The Zionist movement was officially founded after the Kattowitz convention (1884) and the World Zionist Congress (1897), and it was Theodor Herzl who initiated the struggle to establish a state for the Jews.

After the First World War, it seemed that the conditions that made it possible for the Jews to establish such a state had arrived: The United Kingdom captured Palestine from the Ottoman Empire, and the Jews received the promise of a "National Home" from the British in the form of the Balfour Declaration of 1917, given to Chaim Weizmann.

In 1920, the British Mandate of Palestine was established and the pro-Jewish Herbert Samuel was appointed High Commissioner of Palestine, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem was established and several large Jewish immigration waves to Palestine occurred. The Arab inhabitants of Palestine grew hostile to increasing Jewish immigration, and as a result, they began to express their opposition to the establishment of Jewish settlements and the pro-Jewish policy of the British government.

New Jewish immigrants began to create militias and paramilitary groups such as the Bar-Giora and Hashomer.

Clashes between Jews and Arabs became more frequent. After the 1920 Nebi Musa riots, the Jewish leadership in Palestine believed that the British had little desire to involve themselves in these clashes and maintain order. Believing that they could not rely on the British administration for protection, the Jewish leadership created the Haganah and Irgun paramilitary organizations in order to protect its community's farms and Kibbutzim.

These paramilitary organization were involved in major riots, such as the Jaffa riots, 1929 Palestine riots and the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine. Arabs, Jews and Britons suffered in this violence.

Due to the increasing violence, the United Kingdom gradually started to backtrack from its original idea of supporting the establishment of a Jewish homeland and it also started to speculate on a binational solution to the crisis or the establishment of an Arab state that would have a Jewish minority.

Jews in Europe and the United States after World War I

Bilingual Polish-Yiddish poster for the Warsaw Young Theater's production of Mississippi in 1935, written by Leib Malach

The World War I and subsequent political changes, such as the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the establishment of new nation-states after 1918, led to far-reaching consequenсes for the Jews of Eastern Europe. The authorities of the Soviet Union viewed private commerce as negative and sought to bring all trade under the aegis of state enterprises. Therefore, many Jews, who had previously made their living from trade, were forced to find other occupations. In Poland, Hungary, and Romania, the authorities adopted policies aimed at ethnicizing their national economies, aiming to exclude Jews as far as possible from the marketplace.

Nevertheless, the Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. In Austria in the years between the two World Wars Jews were approximately 3.5% of the population but were 27.3% of university professors. In Germany between 1918 and 1933 Jews were 0.78% of the population but were 16% of the doctors, 15% of the dentists, 25% of the lawyers, 50% of the theatre directors and occupied 80% of the leading positions in the Berlin stock exchange. In Poland in 1931 Jews were 10.2% of the population but were 56% of the doctors in private practice, 33% of the lawyers, and 24% of the pharmacists. In Russia during the period 1917–1939 Jews were approximately 1.8% of the population, while Jews were 9% of the officers in military academies, 15% of the university graduates, 11% of the doctors and 14% of the university professors.

Among those Jews who were generally considered the most famous were the scientist Albert Einstein and the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. At that time, a disproportionate number of Nobel Prize winners were Jewish, as is still the case.

The Holocaust

اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو History of the Jews during World War II ۽ The Holocaust

Bodies of inmates of the Mittelbau-Dora Nazi concentration camp who died during Allied bombing raids on April 3 and 4, 1945

In 1933, with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party's rise to power in Germany, the Jewish situation became more severe. Economic crises, racial Anti-Jewish laws, and fear of an upcoming war led many Jews to flee from Europe and settle in Palestine, the United States and the Soviet Union.

In 1939, World War II began and until 1945, Germany occupied almost all of Europe, including Poland—where millions of Jews were living at that time—and France. In 1941, following the invasion of the Soviet Union, the Final Solution began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe, as well as Jews in European North Africa (pro-Nazi Vichy-North Africa and Italian Libya). This genocide, in which approximately six million Jews were methodically murdered with horrifying cruelty, is known as The Holocaust or the Shoah (Hebrew term). In Poland, as many as one million Jews were murdered in gas chambers at the Auschwitz camp complex.

The massive scale of the Holocaust, and the horrors that happened during it, were only understood after the war, and they heavily affected the Jewish nation and world public opinion. Efforts were then increased to establish a Jewish state in Palestine.

The establishment of the State of Israel

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو History of Israel (1948–present)

وڌيڪ ڏسو: Israel ۽ Israeli Declaration of Independence

سانچو:History of Israel In 1945 the Jewish resistance organizations in Palestine unified and established the Jewish Resistance Movement. The movement began guerrilla attacks against Arab paramilitaries and the British authorities.سانچو:Fix/category Following the King David Hotel bombing, Chaim Weizmann, president of the WZO appealed to the movement to cease all further military activity until a decision would be reached by the Jewish Agency. The Jewish Agency backed Weizmann's recommendation to cease activities, a decision reluctantly accepted by the Haganah, but not by the Irgun and Lehi. The JRM was dismantled and each of the founding groups continued operating according to their own policy.

The Jewish leadership decided to centre the struggle in the illegal immigration to Palestine and began organizing a massive number of Jewish war refugees from Europe, without the approval of the British authorities. This immigration contributed a great deal to the Jewish settlements in Israel in the world public opinion and the British authorities decided to let the United Nations decide upon the fate of Palestine.سانچو:Fix/category

On November 29, 1947, the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 181(II) recommending partitioning Palestine into an Arab state, a Jewish state and the City of Jerusalem. The Jewish leadership accepted the decision but the Arab League and the leadership of Palestinian Arabs opposed it. Following a period of civil war the 1948 Arab–Israeli War started.سانچو:Fix/category

In the middle of the war, after the last British soldiers of the Palestine Mandate left, David Ben-Gurion proclaimed on May 14, 1948, the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel to be known as the State of Israel. The war ended in 1949 and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of hundreds of thousands of Jews from all over the world, notably Arab countries.

Since 1948, Israel has been involved in a series of major military conflicts, including the 1956 Suez Crisis, 1967 Six-Day War, 1973 Yom Kippur War, 1982 Lebanon War, and 2006 Lebanon War, as well as a nearly constant series of ongoing minor conflicts.

Since 1977, an ongoing and largely unsuccessful series of diplomatic efforts have been initiated by Israel, Palestinian organizations, their neighbours, and other parties, including the United States and the European Union, to bring about a peace process to resolve conflicts between Israel and its neighbours, mostly over the fate of the Palestinian people.

ايڪويهين صدي

Israel is a parliamentary democracy with a population of over 8 million people, of whom about 6 million are Jewish. The largest Jewish communities are in Israel and the United States, with major communities in France, Argentina, Russia, England, and Canada.

The Jewish Autonomous Oblast, created during the Soviet period, continues to be an autonomous oblast of the Russian state. The Chief Rabbi of Birobidzhan, Mordechai Scheiner, says there are 4,000 Jews in the capital city. Governor Nikolay Mikhaylovich Volkov has stated that he intends to, "support every valuable initiative maintained by our local Jewish organizations". The Birobidzhan Synagogue opened in 2004 on the 70th anniversary of the region's founding in 1934.

The number of people who identified as Jews in England and Wales rose slightly between 2001 and 2011, with the growth being attributed to the higher birth rate of the Haredi community. The estimated British Jewish population in England as of 2011 was 263,346. As of 2021, per the British Census, the Jewish population of England and Wales was 271,327.

On October 7, 2023, Hamas, along with other Palestinian militant groups, attacked Israel from the Gaza Strip, killing 1,139 people. The day is considered the deadliest day in Israel's history, and the deadliest day for Jews since the Holocaust. The attack escalated into a major war between Israel and Hamas. Hundreds of thousands of civilians were displaced, and more than 250 hostages, including Israelis and foreign nationals, were taken by Hamas, Palestinian Islamic Jihad, and other Gaza-based militant groups.

پڻ ڏسو

• يهوديت
• اسلام ۾ ابراهيم
• يعقوب عليہ السلام
• عيسيٰ عليه السلام
• توريت
• فلسطين
• يروشلم
• اسرائيل
• فلسطين جي رياست
• غزه نسل ڪشي
• يهوديت جي تاريخ
• فلسطين جي تاريخ
• يهودي تاريخ جو خاڪو
• يهودي تاريخ جو وقت
• يهودين جو جينياتي مطالعو
• اسرائيل جي سرزمين ۾ يهودين ۽ يهوديت جي تاريخ

نوٽ

حوالي جا لکت

• Brettler, Marc Zvi (2010). How to read the Bible. New York: Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 978-0-8276-0775-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=39nQafdJ_ssC. 
• Campbell, Antony F.; O'Brien, Mark A. (2000). Unfolding the Deuteronomistic History. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-1368-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=AvZWPFqd2sEC. 
• Faust, Avraham (2015). "The Emergence of Iron Age Israel: On Origins and Habitus". Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience. Springer. pp. 467–482. ISBN 978-3-319-04768-3. https://www.academia.edu/11906343. 
• Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC. 
• Frei, Peter (2001). "Persian Imperial Authorization: A Summary". in Watts, James. Persia and Torah: The Theory of Imperial Authorization of the Pentateuch. Atlanta, GA: SBL Press. pp. 6. ISBN 978-1-58983-015-8. 
• Gelston, Anthony (2003a). "Habakkuk". in Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William. Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&q=Erdman+commentary+old+testament+hebrew+bible. 
• Gelston, Anthony (2003c). "Zephaniah". in Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William. Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&q=Erdman+commentary+old+testament+hebrew+bible. 
• Kelle, Brad E. (2005). Hosea 2: Metaphor and Rhetoric in Historical Perspective. Society of Biblical Lit. 
• Levenson, Jon Douglas (2012). Inheriting Abraham: the legacy of the patriarch in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-16355-0. 
• Mor, Menahem (May 4, 2016). The Second Jewish Revolt: The Bar Kokhba War, 132-136 CE. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-31463-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=T8wJDAAAQBAJ. 
• Neusner, Jacob (1992). A Short History of Judaism: Three Meals, Three Epochs. Minneapolis, Mn: Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-2552-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z3oZVjrDcgC. 
• O'Brien, Julia M. (2002). Nahum. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-84127-300-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=W0X9BTEO7OAC&q=%22seventh+century+BCE%22Assyria+remained+a+formidable%22%22threat%22&pg=PA14. 
• Radine, Jason (2010). The Book of Amos in Emergent Judah. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-150114-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=taqfL4qnJs0C. 
• Coogan, Michael D., ed (2001). "Bitter Lives: Israel in and out of Egypt". The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 58–89. ISBN 978-0-19-513937-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA58. 
• Rogerson, John W. (2003a). "Micah". in Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William. Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&q=%22It+is+rare+for+a+prophet+to+be+mentioned%22&pg=PA703. 
• Rogerson, John W. (2003b). "Deuteronomy". in Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William. Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&q=%22Deuteronomy+is+a+speech+delivered+by+Moses%22&pg=PA153. 
• Romer, Thomas (2008). "Moses Outside the Torah and the Construction of a Diaspora Identity". Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 8, article 15: 2–12. http://www.jhsonline.org/Articles/article_92.pdf. Retrieved September 27, 2019.  آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا October 21, 2020, حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين.
• Skolnik, Fred, مرتب (2007). Encyclopaedia Judaica. جلد 1–22 (2nd rev. ڇاپو). Farmington Hills, Mi: Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 978-0-02-865928-2.

ڪتابيات

• Adler, Yonatan (2022). The Origins of Judaism: An Archaeological-Historical Reappraisal. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-25490-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=k8KREAAAQBAJ. 
• Albertz, Rainer (1994). A History of Israelite Religion. Vol. 1: From the Beginnings to the End of the Monarchy (Reprint ed.). Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-21846-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=GJS7BwAAQBAJ. 
• Albertz, Rainer (1994). A History of Israelite Religion. Vol. 2: From the Exile to the Maccabees (Reprint ed.). Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-21847-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=z5O7BwAAQBAJ. 
• Allegro, John. The chosen people: A study of Jewish history from the time of the exile until the revolt of Bar Kocheba (Andrews, UK, 2015).
• Alpher, Joseph (1986). Encyclopedia of Jewish history: events and eras of the Jewish people.
• Cohn-Sherbok, Dan. Atlas of Jewish history (Routledge, 2013).
• Fireberg, H., Glöckner, O., & Menachem Zoufalá, M., eds. (2020). Being Jewish in 21st Century Central Europe. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Oldenbourg. سانچو:Doi
• Friesel, Evyatar. Atlas of modern Jewish history (1990) online free to borrow
• Gilbert, Martin. Atlas of Jewish History (1993) online free to borrow
• Kobrin, Rebecca and Adam Teller, eds. Purchasing Power: The Economics of Modern Jewish History. (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015. viii, 355 pp. Essays by scholars focused on Europe.
• Mendes-Flohr, Paul R.; Reinharz, Jehuda, eds (1995). The Jew in the Modern World: A Documentary History (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507453-X. OCLC 30026590. 
• Neusner, Jacob; Green, William Scott, eds. (1991). The Origins of Judaism. Religion, History, and Literature in Late Antiquity. 20-volume Set. New York: Garland Press. (Reprinted scholarly essays, with introductions.)
• Neusner, Jacob (1999). The Four Stages of Rabbinic Judaism. London; New York: Routledge.
• Sachar, Howard M. The course of modern Jewish history. (2nd ed. 2013).
• Schloss, Chaim. 2000 Years of Jewish History (2002), Heavily illustrated popular history.
• Scheindlin, Raymond P. A short history of the Jewish people from legendary times to modern statehood (1998) online free to borrow
• Sweeney, Marvin A. (2003). "The Religious World of Ancient Israel to 586 BCE". in Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J.. The Blackwell Companion to Judaism (Reprint ed.). Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publ.. pp. 20–36. ISBN 1-57718-058-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=bEyD_MaeqP4C. 
• Visotzky, Burton L., ed (2018). From Mesopotamia to Modernity: Ten Introductions to Jewish History and Literature (Reprint ed.). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-8133-6717-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=x1JPDwAAQBAJ. 

France

• Benbassa, Esther. The Jews of France: A History from Antiquity to the Present (2001) excerpt and text search; online
• Birnbaum, Pierre, and Jane Todd. The Jews of the Republic: A Political History of State Jews in France from Gambetta to Vichy (1996).
• Birnbaum, Pierre; Kochan, Miriam. Anti-Semitism in France: A Political History from Léon Blum to the Present (1992) 317p.
• Cahm, Eric. The Dreyfus affair in French society and politics (Routledge, 2014).
• Debré, Simon. "The Jews of France." Jewish Quarterly Review 3.3 (1891): 367–435. long scholarly description. online free
• Graetz, Michael, and Jane Todd. The Jews in Nineteenth-Century France: From the French Revolution to the Alliance Israelite Universelle (1996)
• Hyman, Paula E. The Jews of Modern France (1998) excerpt and text search
• Hyman, Paula. From Dreyfus to Vichy: The Remaking of French Jewry, 1906–1939 (Columbia UP, 1979). online free to borrow
• Schechter, Ronald. Obstinate Hebrews: Representations of Jews in France, 1715–1815 (Univ of California Press, 2003)
• Taitz, Emily. The Jews of Medieval France: The Community of Champagne (1994) online آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا November 30, 2018, حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين.

Russia and Eastern Europe

• Brinkmann, Tobias. (2024). Between Borders: The Great Jewish Migration from Eastern Europe. New York: Oxford University Press.

• Darieva, Tsypylma, Darja Klingenberg, and Chen Bram. (2025) "Jews of the Caucasus: multiple entanglements and migration routes." Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 24.2 (2025): 557-569. online

• Fishman, David (1996). Russia's First Modern Jews. New York University Press.
• Gitelman, Zvi (2001). A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present.

• Kushkova, Anna. (2025) "From a Shtetl House to an Urban Apartment: The Soviet Jewish Home Negotiated, Transformed, and Reimagined." Jewish Folklore and Ethnology 4.1 (2025): 70-125. online

• Polonsky, Antony. The Jews in Poland and Russia: A Short History (2013)

• Sapritsky-Nahum, Marina. (2025) "Identity transformations of Ukrainian Jewry during the Russian–Ukrainian war: Odesa’s communities and religious leaders at home and in exile." Canadian Slavonic Papers 67.1-2 (2025): 214-235. online

• Schapiro, Leonard. "The role of the Jews in the Russian revolutionary movement." Slavonic and East European Review (1961): 148-167. online

• Shumsky, Dmitry. (2025) "Beyond Antisemitism: Rethinking Stalin’s Anti-Jewish Campaign, 1948–1953." Journal of Modern History 97.2 (2025): 348-386.
• Weiner, Miriam; Polish State Archives (in cooperation with) (1997). Jewish Roots in Poland: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories. Secaucus, NJ: Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation. ISBN 978-0-9656508-0-9. OCLC 38756480. 
• Weiner, Miriam; Ukrainian State Archives (in cooperation with); Moldovan National Archives (in cooperation with) (1999). Jewish Roots in Ukraine and Moldova: Pages from the Past and Archival Inventories. Secaucus, NJ: Miriam Weiner Routes to Roots Foundation. ISBN 978-0-9656508-1-6. OCLC 607423469. 
• Yivo Institute for Jewish Research. A Century of Ambivalence, Second Expanded Edition: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present (Indiana University Press, 2001).

United States

{{Main|American Jews#Bibliography|History of the

According to Jewish tradition, Jacob, shown wrestling with the angel in this painting by Rembrandt, was the father of the tribes of Israel.

Jews originated from the Israelites and Hebrews of historical Israel and Judah, two related kingdoms that emerged in the Levant during the Iron Age. The earliest mention of Israelites is inscribed on the Merneptah Stele ت. 1213–1203 BCE; later religious literature tells the story of Israelites going back at least as far as سانچو:Cx. Traditionally, the name Israel is said to originate with the Hebrew patriarch Jacob, who provides a narrative etiology for the name – after wrestling with an angel, Jacob is renamed Israel, meaning "he who struggles with God". The Kingdom of Israel based in Samaria fell to the Neo-Assyrian Empire سانچو:Cx, and the Kingdom of Judah to the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE. Part of the Judean population was exiled to Babylon. The Assyrian and Babylonian captivities are regarded as representing the start of the Jewish diaspora.

After the Achaemenid Empire conquered the region, the exiled Jews were allowed to return and rebuild the temple; these events mark the beginning of the Second Temple period. After several centuries of foreign rule, the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire led to an independent Hasmonean kingdom, but it was gradually incorporated into the Roman imperial system. The Jewish–Roman wars, a series of unsuccessful revolts against the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple, and the expulsion of many Jews. The Jewish population in Syria Palaestina gradually decreased during the following centuries, enhancing the role of the Jewish diaspora and shifting the spiritual and demographic centre from the depopulated Judea to Galilee and then to Babylon, with smaller communities spread out across the Roman Empire. During the same period, the Mishnah and the Talmud, central Jewish texts, were composed. In the following millennia, the diaspora communities coalesced into three major ethnic subdivisions according to where their ancestors settled: the Ashkenazim in Central and Eastern Europe, the Sephardim initially in Iberia, and the Mizrahim in the Middle East and North Africa.

The early Muslim conquests ended Byzantine control over the Eastern Mediterranean, with the newly established Rashidun Caliphate taking over the Levant, Mesopotamia, and North Africa during the 7th century, and the Iberian Peninsula during the 8th century. Jewish culture enjoyed a golden age in Spain, with Jews becoming widely accepted in society and their religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed before the arrival of the intolerant Almohades. In 1492 the Jews were forced to leave Spain by the Catholic Monarchs Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand II, whereafter they migrated in great numbers to the Ottoman Empire and Italy. Between the 12th and 15th centuries, Ashkenazi Jews experienced extreme persecution in Central Europe, which prompted their mass migration to Poland. The 18th century saw the rise of the Haskalah intellectual movement. Also starting in the 18th century, Jews began to campaign for Jewish emancipation from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society.

In the 19th century, when Jews in Western Europe were increasingly granted equality before the law, Jews in the Pale of Settlement faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread pogroms. During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to Ottoman Syria with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in Palestine. The Zionist movement was officially founded in 1897. The pogroms also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the United States between 1881 and 1924. The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were Albert Einstein and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Many Nobel Prize winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.

In 1933, with the rise to power of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in Germany, the situation for Jews became severe. Economic crises, racial antisemitic laws, and a fear of an upcoming war led many to flee from Europe to Mandatory Palestine, to the United States and to the Soviet Union. In 1939, World War II began and until 1941 Germany occupied almost all of Europe. In 1941, following the invasion of the Soviet Union, the Final Solution began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and North Africa. In Poland, three million were murdered in gas chambers in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the Auschwitz camp complex alone. This genocide, in which approximately six million Jews were methodically exterminated, is known as the Holocaust.

Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On May 14, 1948, upon the termination of the British Mandate, David Ben-Gurion declared the creation of the State of Israel, a Jewish and democratic state in Eretz Israel (Land of Israel). Immediately afterwards, all neighbouring Arab states invaded, yet the newly formed IDF resisted. In 1949, the war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of Aliyah from all over Europe and Middle Eastern countries. بمطابق

2022,

Israel is a parliamentary democracy with a population of 9.6 million people, of whom 7 million are Jewish.

The largest Jewish community outside Israel is the United States, while large communities also exist in France, Canada, Argentina, Russia, United Kingdom, Australia, and Germany. Currently, the Jewish ethnicity have two autonomous states under their power to act as sanctuaries, Israel and the Jewish Autonomous Oblast.

ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا

• The Jewish History Resource Center. Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
• The State of Israel The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
• Jewish History and Culture Encyclopaedia آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا December 24, 2008, حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين. Official Site of the 22-volume Encyclopaedia Judaica
• Internet Jewish History Sourcebook offering homework help and online texts
• Israelite Religion to Judaism: the Evolution of the Religion of Israel.
• 2000 Years of Jewish History
• Greek Influence on Judaism from the Hellenistic Period Through the Middle Ages c. 300 BCE–1200 CE.
• Jewish Sects of the Second Temple Period.
• The Origin and Nature of the Samaritans and their Relationship to Second Temple Jewish Sects.
• Jewish History Tables.
• Articles on Australian Jewish history.
• Articles on British Jewish history.
• Barnavi, Eli (Ed.). A Historical Atlas of the Jewish People. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1992. ISBN 978-0-679-40332-6
• Crash Course in Jewish History
• Jewish families in Csicsó – Cicov (Slovakia) until the Holocaust
• "Under the Influence: Hellenism in Ancient Jewish Life" آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا February 29, 2012, حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين. Biblical Archaeology Society
• Summary of Jewish History by Berel Wein
• Ancient Hebrew history
• Videos of Jewish History Lectures by Henry Abramson of Touro College South