مواد ڏانھن هلو

وولگا درياھ

ڳنڍڻن کي سنواريو
کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
وولگا
Volga
Волга
وولگا ياروسلاول ۾
وولگا جي نيڪال جو حوض
اشتقاق"وولگا" (vòlga نم پروٽو سلوڪ)
مقام
جڳھاوڀر يورپ
ملڪروسي فيڊريشن
وفاقي مضمونٽوير اوبلاسٽ • ماسڪو اوبلاسٽ • ياروسلاول اوبلاسٽ • جمهوريه ماري ايل جمهوريه چوواشيا • جمهوريه تاتارستان • سمارا اوبلاسٽ • ساراتوف اوبلاسٽ • آستراخان اوبلاسٽ • جمهوريه ڪالميڪيا • ڪوسٽروما اوبلاسٽ • نزني نووگوروڊ اوبلاسٽ • اُليانووسڪ اوبلاسٽ • آئيوانووو اوبلاسٽ • وولگوگراڊ اوبلاسٽ
شهرٽوير • ياروسلاول • نزني نووگوروڊ • چيبوڪسري • قازان • اُوليانووسڪ • سمارا • ساراتوف • وولگوگراڊ • آسترخان • ٽوگليٽي
طبعي وصفون
Source 
 • locationوالڊائي ٽڪريون , ٽوير اوبلاسٽ
 • coordinates57°15′4.7″N 32°28′5.1″E / 57.251306°N 32.468083°E / 57.251306; 32.468083
 • elevation228 ميٽر[1]
ڇوڙڪيسپيئن سمنڊ
 -  مقامآستراخان اوبلاسٽ
 - محل وقوع 45°41′42″N 47°53′51″E / 45.69500°N 47.89750°E / 45.69500; 47.89750[2]
 - بلندي28 ميٽر[1]}
ڊيگھ3531 ڪلوميٽر[3]}
طاس جي ماپ13,60,000 چورس ڪلوميٽر [3] 14,04,108 چورس ڪلوميٽر[4]
Discharge 
 • locationآستراخان (بيسن جي ماپ: 13,91,271 چورس ڪلوميٽر)
 • average8060 ڪيوبڪ ميٽر في سيڪنڊ

8103 ڪيوبڪ ميٽر في سيڪنڊ

وولگا ڊيلٽا 111 ڪيوبڪ ميٽر في سيڪنڊ[4]}
 • minimum5000 ڪيوبڪ ميٽر في سيڪن}
 • maximum48500 ڪيوبڪ ميٽر في سيڪن}
Discharge 
 • locationوولگوگراڊ (بيسن جي ماپ: 13,59,397 چورس ڪلوميٽر)
 • average8150 ڪيوبڪ ميٽر في سيڪنڊ
 • minimum5090 ڪيوبڪ ميٽر في سيڪنڊ
 • maximum48,450 ڪيوبڪ ميٽر في سيڪنڊ
Discharge 
 • locationسمارا (بيسن جي ماپ: 12,18,995 چورس ڪلوميٽر)
 • average7,680 ڪيوبڪ ميٽر في سيڪنڊ
Discharge 
 • locationنزني نووگوروڊ (بيسن جي ماپ: 4,97,637 چورس ڪلوميٽر)
 • average2,940 ڪيوبڪ ميٽر في سيڪنڊ
2,806 ڪيوبڪ ميٽر في سيڪنڊ

ياروسلاول (بيسن جي ماپ: 153658 چورس ڪلوميٽر): 1,008 ڪيوبڪ ميٽر في سيڪنڊ

[5] رائبنسک (بيسن جي ماپ: 125120 چورس ڪلوميٽر): 993 ڪيوبڪ ميٽر في سيڪنڊ

[5]
Discharge 
 • locationٽوير (بيسن جي ماپ: 24,659 چورس ڪلوميٽر)
 • average176 ڪيوبڪ ميٽر في سيڪنڊ
186 ڪيوبڪ ميٽر في سيڪنڊ[5]
طاس جا تفصيل
شامل ٿيندڙ نديون 
 -  کاٻي پاسي ڪاما ندي
 -  ساڄي پاسي اوڪا ندي
اوليانوفسڪ جي ويجهو وولگا ندي

وولگا (روسي: Волга) يورپ جو سڀ کان ڊگهو درياهه ۽ دنيا جو سڀ کان ڊگهو اينڊورهائيڪ بيسن درياهه، روس ۾ واقع آهي.[6] اهو وچ روس مان ڏکڻ روس ۽ ڪيسپين سمنڊ ۾ وهندو آهي. وولگا جي ڊيگهه 3,531 ڪلوميٽر (2,194 ميل) آهي ۽ ان جو ڪيچمينٽ ايريا 13,60,000 چورس ڪلوميٽر (5,30,000 چورس ميل) آهي. اهو ڊيلٽا تي سراسري خارج ٿيڻ، 8,000 ۽ 8,500 ڪيوبڪ ميٽر (2,80,000 ۽ 3,00,000 ڪيوبڪ فوٽ) في سيڪنڊ جي وچ ۾، جي لحاظ کان يورپ جو سڀ کان وڏو درياهه پڻ آهي[7] ۽ نيڪال جي بيسن جي لحاظ کان ان کي روس جي قومي درياهه طور وڏي پيماني تي سمجهيو ويندو آهي. پراڻي روسي رياست، روس خگنيٽ، تقريبن 830 عيسوي ۾ وولگا جي ڪناري تي پيدا ٿي. [8] تاريخي طور تي درياهه مختلف يوريشيائي تهذيبن جي هڪ اهم ملاقات جي جڳهه طور ڪم ڪيو.[9][10][11]

درياهه روس ۾ ٻيلن، ٻيلن جي ميدانن ۽ ميدانن مان وهندو آهي. قوم جي گاديءَ جي هنڌ، ماسڪو سميت، روس جي ڏهن وڏن شهرن مان پنج، وولگا جي نيڪال واري بيسن ۾ واقع آهن. ڇاڪاڻ ته وولگا ڪئسپين سمنڊ ۾ وهندو آهي، جيڪو هڪ اندروني پاڻي جو جسم آهي، وولگا قدرتي طور تي دنيا جي ڪنهن به سمنڊ سان ڳنڍيل ناهي.

دنيا جا ڪجهه وڏا پاڻي جا ذخيرا وولگا ندي جي ڪناري تي واقع آهن. روسي ثقافت ۾ درياهه جو هڪ علامتي مطلب آهي. روسي ادب ۽ لوڪ ڪهاڻيون اڪثر ڪري ان کي "وولگا-ماتوشڪا" (روسي: Волга-матушка، مادر وولگا) جي نالي سان سڏين ٿا.

نالو

[سنواريو]

روسي نالو وولگا (Волга) پروٽو-سلاڪ لفظ "vòlga" 'گندو، نمي' مان نڪتل آهي. جيڪو ڪيترين ئي سلاواڪ ٻولين ۾ محفوظ آهي. وولگا (влага). نمي. بلغاريا. سربو-ڪروشين: سلووين. پولش. مقدونيائي ۽ چيڪ: ولها. نمي.

وولگا جو سٿين نالو "راها", لفظي معنيٰ 'گندو' هو. هي هڪ افسانوي وهڪري جي اويستا نالي سان لاڳاپيل آهي، راها (𐬭𐬀𐬢𐬵𐬁)، جنهن جو مطلب آهي "گندو" يا "نمي". هن نالي جو مقابلو ڪيترن ئي هند-ايراني اصطلاحن سان ڪري سگهجي ٿو، جهڙوڪ: سوگديان رʾڪ (𐽀𐼰𐼸‎) 'رڳ، رت جي رڳ' (پراڻي ايراني: راهاڪا مان). فارسي: رڳ. رڳ. ويدڪ سنسڪرت: راسا (رسا). شبنم، مائع، رس. افسانوي درياهه. جيڪو سنڌو درياهه جي هڪ معاون ندي جو نالو پڻ هو. سٿين نالو جديد موڪشا ۾ را (Рав) جي نالي سان زنده آهي.

يوناني ليکڪ هيروڊوٽس وولگا جا ٻه وڌيڪ قديم ايراني نالا درج ڪيا آهن:

  • اوارو (قديم يوناني: Ὄαρος, اورس). جيڪو سٿين مان نڪتل آهي: وارو، جنهن جي معنيٰ آهي "وسيع". ڊنيپر نديءَ جو هون نالو، وار، پڻ سٿين مان نڪتل آهي: وارو.
  • اراڪسس (قديم يوناني: Ἀράξης, ارڪسس). درياهه جي ڪناري تي رهندڙ ترڪ ماڻهو اڳ ۾ ان کي اتيل يا اتيل سڏيندا هئا. جديد ترڪ ٻولين ۾. وولگا کي تاتار ۾ İdel (Идел) جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. چواش ۾ اتال (Атӑл). بشڪير ۾ ايزل. قازق ۾ ايڊيل، ۽ ترڪي ۾ اِدل. ترڪ نالا قديم ترڪ روپ "ايتل/ايرتل" ڏانهن واپس وڃن ٿا، جنهن جي اصليت ۽ معنيٰ واضح ناهي. شايد هن شڪل جو هائيڊرونيم ارتيش سان تعلق آهي.
  • ترڪ ماڻهن اِتل جي اصليت کي ڪاما سان ڳنڍيو. اهڙيءَ طرح، ڪاما جي هڪ کاٻي شاخ کي آق اِتل 'اڇو اِتل' جو نالو ڏنو ويو جيڪو جديد شهر اوفا ۾ ڪارا اِتل 'ڪارو اِتل' سان ملائي ٿو. انڊيل (انڊيل) جو نالو چرڪس ٻولي ۾ استعمال ٿيندو آهي.
  • ايشيا ۾ درياهه کي ان جي ٻئي ترڪ نالو سارِ-سو 'پيلو پاڻي' سان سڃاتو ويندو هو، پر اوئرات پڻ پنهنجو نالو، اِجل مورون يا 'موافقت درياءَ' استعمال ڪندا هئا. هن وقت ماري، هڪ ٻيو يورالڪ گروهه، درياهه کي جُل (Юл) سڏيندو آهي، جنهن جي معنيٰ تاتار ۾ 'رستو' آهي.

وضاحت

[سنواريو]
The Saratov Bridge by night, Saratov Oblast
The upper Volga in the vicinity of Staritsa, 1912
Large river ending in triangular delta into sea, seen from above the atmosphere
View of the Volga Delta from the International Space Station


The Saratov Bridge by night, Saratov Oblast

The upper Volga in the vicinity of Staritsa, 1912]]

The Volga is the longest river in Europe, and its catchment area is almost entirely inside Russia, though the longest river in Russia is the Ob–Irtysh river system.[1] It belongs to the closed basin of the Caspian Sea, being the longest river to flow into a closed basin. The source of the Volga lies in the village of Volgoverkhov'e in Tver Oblast. Rising in the Valdai Hills 225 m (738 ft) above sea level northwest of Moscow and about 320 km (200 mi) southeast of Saint Petersburg, the Volga heads east past Lake Sterzh, Tver, Dubna, Rybinsk, Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, and Kazan. From there it turns south, flows past Ulyanovsk, Tolyatti, Samara, Saratov and Volgograd, and discharges into the Caspian Sea below Astrakhan at 28 m (92 ft) below sea level.[1]

The Volga has many tributaries, most importantly the Kama, the Oka, the Vetluga, and the Sura. The Volga and its tributaries form the Volga river system, which flows through an area of about 1,350,000 km2 (520,000 sq mi) in the most heavily populated part of Russia.[1] The Volga Delta has a length of about 160 km (99 mi) and includes as many as 500 channels and smaller rivers. The largest estuary in Europe, it is the only place in Russia where pelicans, flamingos, and lotuses may be found.[حوالو گهربل] The Volga freezes for most of its length for three months each year.[1]

The Volga drains most of Western Russia. Its many large reservoirs provide irrigation and hydroelectric power. The Moscow Canal, the Volga–Don Canal, and the Volga–Baltic Waterway form navigable waterways connecting Moscow to the White Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Caspian Sea, the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea. High levels of chemical pollution have adversely affected the river and its habitats.

The fertile river valley provides large quantities of wheat and other agricultural produce, and also has many mineral riches. A substantial petroleum industry centers on the Volga valley. Other resources include natural gas, salt, and potash. The Volga Delta and the Caspian Sea are fishing grounds.

Confluences (downstream to upstream)

[سنواريو]
The Starovolzhsky Bridge in Tver
Volga Hydroelectric Station
The confluence of the Oka (to the left) and the Volga in Nizhny Novgorod

Reservoirs (downstream to upstream)

[سنواريو]

A number of large hydroelectric reservoirs were constructed on the Volga during the Soviet era. They are:

Biggest cities on the shores of the Volga

[سنواريو]

Bridges across the Volga

[سنواريو]

Human history

[سنواريو]
Many Orthodox shrines and monasteries are located along the banks of the Volga

The Volga–Oka region has been occupied for at least 9,000 years and supported a bone and antler industry for producing bone arrowheads, spearheads, lanceheads, daggers, hunters knives, and awls. The makers also used local quartz and imported flints.[12]

During classical antiquity, the Volga formed the boundary between the territories of the Cimmerians in the Caucasian Steppe and the Scythians in the Caspian Steppe.[13] After the Scythians migrated to the west and displaced the Cimmerians, the Volga became the boundary between the territories of the Scythians in the Pontic and Caspian Steppes and the Massagetae in the Caspian and Transcaspian steppes.[14]

Between the 6th and the 8th centuries, the Alans settled in the Middle Volga region and in the steppes of Russia's southern region in the Pontic–Caspian steppe.[15]

The area around the Volga was inhabited by the Slavic tribes of Vyatichs and Buzhans, by Finno-Ugric, Scandinavian, Baltic, Hunnic and Turkic peoples (Tatars, Kipchaks, Khazars) in the first millennium AD, replacing the Scythians.[16]سانچو:Unreliable source? Furthermore, the river played a vital role in the commerce of the Byzantine people. The ancient scholar Ptolemy of Alexandria mentions the lower Volga in his Geography (Book 5, Chapter 8, 2nd Map of Asia). He calls it the Rha, which was the Scythian name for the river. Ptolemy believed the Don and the Volga shared the same upper branch, which flowed from the Hyperborean Mountains. Between 2nd and 5th centuries Baltic people were very widespread in today's European Russia. Baltic people were widespread from Sozh River till today's Moscow and covered much of today's Central Russia and intermingled with the East Slavs.[17] The Russian ethnicity in Western Russia and around the Volga river evolved to a very large extent, next to other tribes, out of the East Slavic tribe of the Buzhans and Vyatichis. The Vyatichis were originally concentrated on the Oka River.[18] Furthermore, several localities in Russia are connected to the Slavic Buzhan tribe, like for example Sredniy Buzhan in the Orenburg Oblast, Buzan and the Buzan River in the Astrakhan Oblast.[19] Buzhan (Persian: بوژانسانچو:Lrm, romanized: Būzhān; also known as Būzān) is also a village in Nishapur, Iran. In late 8th century the Russian state Russkiy Kaganate is recorded in different Northern and Oriental sources. The Volga was one of the main rivers of the Rus' Khaganates culture.[20]

Subsequently, the river basin played an important role in the movements of peoples from Asia to Europe. A powerful polity of Volga Bulgaria once flourished where the Kama joins the Volga, while Khazaria controlled the lower stretches of the river. Such Volga cities as Atil, Saqsin, or Sarai were among the largest in the medieval world. The river served as an important trade route connecting Scandinavia, Finnic areas with the various Slavic tribes and Turkic, Germanic, Finnic and other people in Old Rus', and Volga Bulgaria with Khazaria, Persia and the Arab world.

Ilya Yefimovich Repin's 1870–1873 painting Barge Haulers on the Volga

Khazars were replaced by Kipchaks, Kimeks and Mongols, who founded the Golden Horde in the lower reaches of the Volga. Later their empire divided into the Khanate of Kazan and Khanate of Astrakhan, both of which were conquered by the Russians in the course of the 16th century Russo-Kazan Wars. The Russian people's deep feeling for the Volga echoes in national culture and literature, starting from the 12th century Lay of Igor's Campaign.[21] The Volga Boatman's Song is one of many songs devoted to the national river of Russia.

Construction of Soviet Union-era dams often involved enforced resettlement of huge numbers of people, as well as destruction of their historical heritage. For instance, the town of Mologa was flooded for the purpose of constructing the Rybinsk Reservoir (then the largest artificial lake in the world). The construction of the Uglich Reservoir caused the flooding of several monasteries with buildings dating from the 15th and 16th centuries. In such cases the ecological and cultural damage often outbalanced any economic advantage.[22]

20th-century conflicts

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو Battle of Stalingrad ۽ Kazan Operation
Soviet Marines charge the Volga river bank.

During the Russian Civil War, both sides fielded warships on the Volga. In 1918, the Red Volga Flotilla participated in driving the Whites eastward, from the Middle Volga at Kazan to the Kama and eventually to Ufa on the Belaya.[23]

During the Civil War, Joseph Stalin ordered the imprisonment of several military specialists on a barge in the Volga and the sinking of a floating prison in which the officers perished.[24][25]

During World War II, the city on the big bend of the Volga, currently known as Volgograd, witnessed the Battle of Stalingrad, possibly the bloodiest battle in human history, in which the Soviet Union and the German forces were deadlocked in a stalemate battle for access to the river. The Volga was (and still is) a vital transport route between central Russia and the Caspian Sea, which provides access to the oil fields of the Absheron Peninsula. Hitler planned to use access to the oil fields of Azerbaijan to fuel future German conquests. Apart from that, whoever held both sides of the river could move forces across the river, to defeat the enemy's fortifications beyond the river.[26] By taking the river, Hitler's Germany would have been able to move supplies, guns, and men into the northern part of Russia. At the same time, Germany could permanently deny this transport route by the Soviet Union, hampering its access to oil and to supplies via the Persian Corridor.

For this reason, many amphibious military assaults were brought about in an attempt to remove the other side from the banks of the river. In these battles, the Soviet Union was the main offensive side, while the German troops used a more defensive stance, though much of the fighting was close quarters combat, with no clear offensive or defensive side.

نسلي گروهه

[سنواريو]

نيويگيشن

[سنواريو]

سيٽلائيٽ تصويرون

[سنواريو]

ثقافتي اهميت

[سنواريو]

وولگا درياءَ جي ڪل ڊيگهه 3,531 ڪلوميٽر آهي. هي درياءُ پنهنجي وهڪري جي حوالي سان به يورپ جو سڀ کان وڏو درياءُ آهي. هن کي روس جو قومي درياءُ تسليم ڪيو ويندو آهي. تاريخي طور تي، هي درياءُ يوريشيا جي مختلف تهذيبن جي ميلاپ جو مرڪز رهيو آهي. روس جي قديم رياست "روس خگنيٽ" (Rus' Khaganate) لڳ ڀڳ 830ع ۾ هن درياءَ جي ڪناري تي وجود ۾ آئي هئي.

جاگرافيائي بناوٽ

[سنواريو]

وولگا درياءُ روس جي ٻيلن ۽ ميداني علائقن (steppes) مان گذري ٿو. روس جي ڏهن وڏن شهرن مان پنج شهر، بشمول گاديءَ جو هنڌ ماسڪو، هن درياءَ جي طاس (drainage basin) ۾ واقع آهن. ڇاڪاڻ ته وولگا ڪئسپين سمنڊ ۾ ڇوڙ ڪري ٿو، جيڪو چئني پاسن کان زمين سان گهيريل آهي، ان ڪري هي درياءُ قدرتي طور تي دنيا جي وڏن سمنڊن (Oceans) سان ڳنڍيل ناهي.

ثقافتي مقام

[سنواريو]

روسي ڪلچر ۾ وولگا کي هڪ علامتي حيثيت حاصل آهي. روسي ادب ۽ لوڪ ڪهاڻين ۾ هن کي اڪثر "وولگا ماتوشڪا" (Volga-Matushka) يعني "ماءُ وولگا" جي نالي سان ياد ڪيو ويندو آهي. دنيا جا ڪجهه وڏا بند (Reservoirs) پڻ هن درياءَ تي تعمير ٿيل آهن.


وولگا ندي وولگا درياءُ (Volga)
فائل:Volga River near Ulyanovsk.jpg
اوليانوفسڪ جي ويجهو وولگا ندي
CitiesMoscow
ماخذ جو هنڌوالڊائي ٽڪريون
وات جو هنڌڪيسپين سمنڊ ئ
ڊيگهه3,531 ڪلوميٽر
بيسن جو سائز1,360,000 چورس ڪلوميٽر

وولگا (روس) يورپ جو سڀ کان ڊگهو درياءُ آهي ۽ دنيا جو سڀ کان وڏو "اينڊورهيڪ" (endorheic) يعني اهڙو درياءُ آهي جيڪو ڪنهن کليل سمنڊ ۾ ڪرڻ بجاءِ هڪ بند سمنڊ (ڪئسپين سمنڊ) ۾ ڇوڙ ڪري ٿو. هي درياءُ روس ۾ واقع آهي ۽ وچ روس کان ڏکڻ روس تائين وهندو ڪيسپئن سمنڊ ۾ وڃي ڪري ٿو.

وڌيڪ ڏسو

[سنواريو]

حوالا

[سنواريو]
  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Scheffel, Richard L., ed (1980). Natural Wonders of the World. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. pp. 406. ISBN 0-89577-087-3.
  2. ↑ Volga GEOnet Names Server تي
  3. 1 2 حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named gvr
  4. 1 2 حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named auto
  5. 1 2 3 حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named auto2
  6. ↑ "10 Longest Rivers In Europe".
  7. ↑ «Река Волга» آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 5 March 2016 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين., Russian State Water Registry
  8. ↑ Gannholm, Tore. "Birka, Varangian Emporium" (in انگريزي). Archived from the original on 18 April 2022. Retrieved 15 August 2020.
  9. ↑ Luttwak, Edward N. (2011). Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Belknap Harvard. pp. 52. ISBN 978-0674062078. OCLC 733913679.
  10. ↑ Walker, Joel (2007). "Iran and Its Neighbors in Late Antiquity: Art of the Sasanian Empire (224–642 C.E.)". American Journal of Archaeology 1 11 (4): 797. doi:10.3764/aja.111.4.795. ISSN 0002-9114.
  11. ↑ McNeese, Tim (2005). The Volga river. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers. pp. 14–16. ISBN 0791082474. OCLC 56535045.
  12. ↑ Zhilin, M. (2015). Early Mesolithic bone arrowheads from the Volga-Oka interfluve, central Russia. 32. 35-54.
  13. ↑ حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named OlbrychtCimmerians
  14. ↑ حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named OlbrychtNomads
  15. ↑ "VORGESCHICHE DER URALISCHEN SPRACHFAMILIE, GESCHICHTE DER KLEINEREN URALISCHEN SPRACHEN: CHRONOLOGIE" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 May 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2019.
  16. ↑ Katona, Cseste (2018). Co-operation between the Viking Rus' and the Turkic nomads of the steppe in the ninth-eleventh centuries (PDF) (MA thesis). Central European University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  17. ↑ "Marija Gimbutas. "A Survey Study of the Ancient Balts - Reviewed by Jonas Puzinas". www.lituanus.org. Archived from the original on 4 August 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2019.
  18. ↑ Zhirohov, Mikhail. (2019). The Khazars: a Judeo-Turkish Empire on the Steppes, 7th-11th Centuries AD.. Nicolle, David., Hook, Christa.. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. pp. 47. ISBN 9781472830104. OCLC 1076253515.
  19. ↑ "Early East Slavic Tribes in Russia". Study.com (in انگريزي). Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 16 December 2018.
  20. ↑ حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Gannholm
  21. ↑ "The Volga". www.volgawriter.com. Archived from the original (Microsoft FrontPage 12.0) on 20 June 2010. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
  22. ↑ "In all, Soviet dams flooded 2,600 villages and 165 cities, almost 78,000 sq. km. – the area of Maryland, Delaware, Massachusetts, and New Jersey combined – including nearly 31,000 sq. km. of agricultural land and 31,000 sq. km. of forestland". Quoted from: Paul R. Josephson. Industrialized Nature: Brute Force Technology and the Transformation of the Natural World. Island Press, 2002. ISBN 1-55963-777-3. Page 31.
  23. ↑ Brian Pearce, Introduction (آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 3 February 2008 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين.) to Fyodor Raskolnikov's Tales of Sub-lieutenant Ilyin.
  24. ↑ Brackman, Roman (23 November 2004) (en ۾). The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life. Routledge. p. 129. ISBN 978-1-135-75840-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=PY2RAgAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+trotsky+military+specialist&pg=PA129. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
  25. ↑ Sebag Montefiore, Simon (2004). Stalin : the court of the red tsar. London: Grown House. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-7538-1766-7. https://archive.org/details/stalincourtofred0000seba/page/34/mode/1up?q=Enmity.
  26. ↑ "::The Battle of Stalingrad". Historylearningsite.co.uk. Archived from the original on 30 May 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2010.

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