مواد ڏانھن هلو

هان خاندان

ڳنڍڻن کي سنواريو
کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
هان خاندان

  • 202 ق.م. کان 9 ب.م.

25 ب.م کان 220 ب.م.

  • 9 ع کان 23 ع: شن خاندان
Location of هان خاندان
حیثیت سلطنت
گادي جو هنڌ چانگ'آن (206 ق.م. کان 9ع، 190ع کان 195ع)
لويانگ (23ع کان 196ع)
زوچانگ (196ع کان 220ع)
مذهب
  • تائوازم
  • چيني لوڪ مذهب
  • ٻڌمت
حڪومت بادشاهت
هان خاندان
"هان" پراڻي مهر لکت ۾ (مٿيون کاٻي)، هان دور جي مذهبي لکت ۾ (مٿيون ساڄي)، جديد چيني ۾ (هيٺيان کاٻي) ۽ آسان چیني (هيٺيان ساڄي) اکرن ۾.
روایتي چیني 漢
آسان چیني اکر 汉
ھانیو پنین Hàn
195 ق.م. ۾ تيرهن سڌي طرح ڪنٽرول ٿيل ڪمانڊريون جن ۾ گاديءَ جو علائقو (پيلو) ۽ ڏهه نيم خودمختيار بادشاهتون شامل هيون.

هان خاندان (Han Dynasty؛ چيني: 漢) چين جو هڪ شاهي حڪمران خاندان (202 قبل مسيح کان 9 عيسوي تائين ۽ 25 کان 220 عيسوي تائين، ٻه دور) هو، جيڪو ليو بينگ پاران قائم ڪيو ويو ۽ ان تي "ليو جي اولاد" (House of Liu) حڪومت ڪندي هئي. هان خاندان کان اڳ وارو دور، مختصر مدت جي "چن" خاندان (221 کان 206 قبل مسيح تائين) جو هڪ جنگي دور هو، جن کي چو-هان تڪرار (206 کان 202 ق.م. تائين) جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. هان خاندان جي پوء جو دور "ٽي بادشاهتن" (Three Kingdoms) جو دور (220 کان 280 عيسوي تائين) سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. هان خاندان جي حڪمراني جي دور ۾ هڪ مختصر وقت (9 کان 23 عيسوي تائين) لاء "شن خاندان"، غاصب ريجنٽ وانگ منگ پاران قائم ڪيل، پاران تعطل آيو. هن طرح هان خاندان جي حڪمراني کي ٻن دورن، اولهه هان دور، 202 ق.م کان 9ع ۽ اوڀر هان، 25 کان 220 ع) ۾ ورهايو ويندو آهي. چار صدين کان وڌيڪ عرصي تائين پکڙيل، هان خاندان جي دور کي چيني تاريخ ۾ سونهري دور سمجهيو ويندو آهي، جيڪا ان جي پوء جي دورن ۾ چيني سڃاڻپ تي مستقل اثر اينديون. [3] جديد چين جو اڪثريتي نسلي گروهه پاڻ کي "هان ماڻهو" يا "هان چيني" سڏي ٿو. ڳالهائيندڙ چيني بولي ۽ چيني لکت کي ترتيب وار "هان ٻولي" ۽ "هان اکر" سڏيو ويندو آهي.[4]

هان شهنشاهه هان سماج ۽ ثقافت جو مرڪزي نقطو هو. هن امير ۽ مقرر ڪيل وزيرن، جيڪا گهڻو ڪري عالمن ۽ اشرافيه جي طبقن مان آيا هئا، ٻنهي سان گڏيل طاقت سان، هان سلطنت جو انتظام ڪيا. هان سلطنت کي مرڪزي حڪومت جي سڌي طرح ڪنٽرول وارن علائقن، جنهن کي "ڪمانڊري" سڏيو ويندو هو ۽ گڏوگڏ ڪيتري ئي نيم خودمختيار بادشاهتن ۾ ورهايو ويو. اها بادشاهتون، خاص طور تي ستن رياستن جي بغاوت کان پوءِ آهستي آهستي پنهنجي آزادي جا سڀئي نشان وڃائي ويٺيون. شهنشاهه وو جي دور ۽ ان کانپوءِ شاهي دربار سرڪاري طور تي، تعليم ۽ عدالتي سياست ۾، ۽ پوء اسڪالرن جهڙوڪ ڊونگ ژونگشو جي ڪائناتيات (Cosmology) سان گڏ ڪنفيوشس ازم جي سرپرستي ڪيا.

هان خاندان جو دور معاشي خوشحالي وارو ۽ انهي سان گڏ زر جي معيشت، جيڪا پهرين 1050-256 ق.م دوران زو خاندان دوران قائم ڪئي وئي هئي، ۾ اهم واڌ جو دور هو. 119 قبل مسيح ۾ مرڪزي حڪومت پاران ٺاهيل سڪا چين ۾ تانگ خاندان (618-907 ع) تائين معيار رهيا. هن دور ۾ ڪيتريون ئي معمولي ادارتي جدتون ڏٺيون ويون. پنهنجي فوجي مهمن جي مالي مدد ۽ نئين فتح ڪيل سرحدي علائقن جي آبادڪاري لاءِ، هان حڪومت 117 ق.م ۾ خانگي لوڻ ۽ لوهه جي صنعتن کي قوميائي ڇڏيو ۽ سرڪاري اجارداري پيدا ڪئي. جيڪي بعد ۾ اوڀر واري دور ۾ منسوخ ڪيون ويون. هان خاندان جي دور ۾ سائنس ۽ ٽيڪنالاجي ۾ اهم ترقيون ٿيون، جنهن ۾ ڪاغذ ٺاهڻ جو ظهور، جهازن کي هلائڻ لاءِ رڊر شامل آهن.

92 عيسوي کان پوءِ، شاهي محل ۾ موجود خواجه سرا، راڻي جي مختلف ساٿي قبيلن ۽ راڻي جي دوز جي وچ ۾ تشدد واري طاقت جي جدوجهد ۾ مشغول ٿيڻ سان، خاندان جي درٻاري سياست ۾ وڌيڪ شامل ٿيڻ لڳا. شاهي اختيار کي وڏي طور تي تاؤسٽ مذهبي سماجن پاران پڻ سخت چئلينج ڪيو ويو، جنهن "پيلي پگڙي بغاوت" (Yellow Turban Rebellion) ۽ "چانور جي پنج ٽڪرن واري بغاوت" (Five Pecks Rice Rebellion) کي جنم ڏنو. شهنشاهه لنگ (حڪومت: 168-189 عيسوي) جي فوتگي کانپوء محل جي خواجه سرائن جو فوجي آفيسرن پاران قتل عام ڪيو ويو ۽ اهڙي طرح اشرافيه ۽ فوجي گورنرن جي ميمبرن کي جنگي سردار بڻجڻ ۽ سلطنت کي ورهائڻ جو موقعو ملي ويو. هان خاندان 220 عيسوي ۾ ختم ٿيو جڏهن "وي خاندان" جو بادشاهه ڪائو پائي شهنشاهه شيان کان تخت تي قبضو ورتو.

نالو

[سنواريو]

شيجي (هڪ تاريخي رزميه) جي مطابق، چن/قن خاندان جي خاتمي کان پوءِ، وڏو نواب، شيانگ يو ليو بينگ کي هان زونگ جي ننڍڙي جاگير جي شهزادي طور مقرر ڪيو. جاگير جو نالو هان نديءَ تي، جديد ڏکڻ اولهه شانزي ۾، ان جي مقام جي نالي تي رکيو ويو. چو-هان تڪرار ۾ ليو بينگ جي فتح کانپوءِ، پيدا ٿيندڙ هان خاندان جو نالو هان زونگ جاگير جي نالي تي رکيو ويو.

تاريخ

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو هان خاندان جي تاريخ
وڌيڪ ڏسو: هان خاندان جو خاڪو

اولهائين هان (202 ق.م.-9 عيسوي)

[سنواريو]
پڻ ڏسو: هان-شيونگنو جنگيون, اندروني ايشيا ۾ هان خاندان, ۽ ڏکڻ ڏانهن واڌارو
وڌيڪ ڏسو: ليولان بادشاهت , شيولئ بادشاهت, ختن جي بادشاهت, ساڪا, ۽ توچاريان
اولهائين هان دور جو سيرامڪ برتن جن تي ڊريگن، فينگ هوانگ ۽ ٽائوٽي جا اڀريل آثار نقش ٿيل آهن.
اولهائين هان جي ٽامي جي آرسي جي پٺيان ڦل ٻوٽا پينٽ ٿيل آهن.

چين جو پهريون شاهي خاندان، چن خاندان (221-206 ق.م) هو. قن خاندان چيني جنگي رياستن کي فتح ذريعي متحد ڪيو. پر پهرين شهنشاهه قن شي هوانگ جي وفات کان پوءِ انهن جي حڪومت غير مستحڪم ٿي وئي ۽ چئن سالن جي اندر خاندان جو اختيار بغاوت ۾ ختم ٿي ويو.[5] ٻه اڳوڻا باغي اڳواڻ، "چو" جو شيانگ يو (وفات:202 ق.م.) ۽ "هان" جو ليو بينگ (وفات: 195 ق.م.) هڪ جنگ ۾ مصروف ٿي ويا[6] ته اهو طئي ڪيو وڃي ته چين، جيڪو ارڙهن بادشاهتن ۾ ورهائجي ويو هو ۽ هر هڪ شيانگ يو يا ليو بينگ جي گروپ ۾ شامل ٿي ويو هو، ڪنهن جي حڪومت هوندي کپي. جيتوڻيڪ شيانگ يو هڪ مؤثر ڪمانڊر ثابت ٿيو، پر ليو بينگ هن کي جديد دور جي اينھئي صوبي ۾ گئڪشيا جي جنگ (202 ق.م.) ۾ شڪست ڏني. ليو بينگ پنهنجي پوئلڳن جي زور تي، شهنشاهه جو لقب اختيار ڪيو ۽ هن کي مرڻ کان پوءِ شهنشاهه گاؤزو (دور:202-195 ق.م) جي نالي سان سڃاڻو ويو.[7] چانگ'آن (جديد شيان) کي هان جي ماتحت ٻيهر متحد سلطنت جي نئين گاديءَ طور چونڊيو ويو.[8]

195 ق.م. ۾ تيرهن سڌي طرح ڪنٽرول ٿيل ڪمانڊريون جن ۾ گاديءَ جو علائقو (پيلو) ۽ ڏهه نيم خودمختيار بادشاهتون شامل هيون.

اولهائين هان (سليس چيني: 西漢؛ چيني لکت : 西汉؛ پنين: Xīhàn) جي شروعات ۾، جنهن کي "اڳوڻي هان" (Zhi) پڻ چيو ويندو آهي، تيرهن مرڪزي طور تي ڪنٽرول ٿيل ڪمانڊريون (گاديءَ واري علائقي سميت) سلطنت جي اولهه واري ٽئين حصي ۾ موجود هيون. جڏهن ته اوڀر جا ٻه ٽيون حصو ڏهه نيم خودمختيار بادشاهتن ۾ ورهايل هئا.[9] "چو" سان جنگ کان پنهنجي ممتاز ڪمانڊرن کي مطمئن ڪرڻ لاءِ، شهنشاهه گاؤزو انهن مان ڪجهه کي جاگيرن تي بادشاهن جي حيثيت سان مقرر ڪيو.

سال 196ع تائين، هان درٻار انهن سڀني بادشاهن کي، چانگشا جي واحد استثنا سان،[9] شاهي ليو خاندان جي ميمبرن سان تبديل ڪري ڇڏيو. شهنشاهه جي غير مائٽن جي وفاداري تي سوال اٿاريو ويو ۽ هان بادشاهن پاران ڪيترن ئي بغاوتن کان پوءِ، جنهن ۾ سڀ کان وڏي 154 عيسوي ۾ ستن رياستن جي بغاوت هئي، شاهي درٻار سڌارن جو هڪ سلسلو نافذ ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جيڪو سال 145ع ۾ انهن بادشاهتن جي طاقت کي محدود ڪري ڇڏيو ۽ انهن جي اڳوڻي علائقن کي، مرڪزي ڪنٽرول هيٺ نئين ڪمانڊرين ۾ ورهايو ويو.[10] بادشاه هاڻي پنهنجو عملي مقرر ڪرڻ جي قابل نه هئا. هي فرض شاهي درٻار طرفان منتقل ڪيو ويو.[11] [12] بادشاهه پنهنجي جاگيرن جا نامياري سربراهه بڻجي ويا ۽ انهن کي ٽيڪس آمدني جو هڪ حصو پنهنجي ذاتي آمدني طور گڏ ڪن جي اجازت هئي.[11] بادشاهتون ڪڏهن به مڪمل طور تي ختم نه ٿيون ۽ باقي اولهائين ۽ اوڀرين هان ۾ موجود رهيون.[13]

To the north of China proper, the nomadic Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu (سانچو:Reign) conquered various tribes inhabiting the eastern portion of the Eurasian Steppe. By the end of his reign, he controlled the Inner Asian regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and the Tarim Basin, subjugating over twenty states east of Samarkand.[14][15][16] Emperor Gaozu was troubled about the abundant Han-manufactured iron weapons traded to the Xiongnu along the northern borders, and he established a trade embargo against the group.[17]

In retaliation, the Xiongnu invaded what is now Shanxi, where they defeated the Han forces at Baideng in 200 BC.[17][18] After negotiations, the heqin agreement in 198 BC nominally held the leaders of the Xiongnu and the Han as equal partners in a royal marriage alliance, but the Han were forced to send large amounts of tribute items such as silk clothes, food, and wine to the Xiongnu.[19][20][21]

Statue of a horse trampling a Xiongnu warrior, at the mausoleum of Western Han general Huo Qubing (سانچو:Died-in), who fought in the Han–Xiongnu War. This is the first known monumental stone statue in China.[22]

Despite the tribute and negotiation between Laoshang Chanyu (سانچو:Reign) and Emperor Wen (سانچو:Reign) to reopen border markets, many of the Chanyu's subordinates chose not to obey the treaty and periodically raided Han territories south of the Great Wall for additional goods.[23][24][25] In a court conference assembled by Emperor Wu (سانچو:Reign) in 135 BC, the majority consensus of the ministers was to retain the heqin agreement. Emperor Wu accepted this, despite continuing Xiongnu raids.[26][27]

However, a court conference the following year convinced the majority that a limited engagement at Mayi involving the assassination of the Chanyu would throw the Xiongnu realm into chaos and benefit the Han.[28][29] When this plot failed in 133 BC,[30] Emperor Wu launched a series of massive military invasions into Xiongnu territory. The assault culminated in 119 BC at the Battle of Mobei, when Han commanders Huo Qubing (سانچو:Died-in) and Wei Qing (سانچو:Died-in) forced the Xiongnu court to flee north of the Gobi Desert, and Han forces reached as far north as Lake Baikal.[31][32]

After Wu's reign, Han forces continued to fight the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu leader Huhanye (سانچو:Reign) finally submitted to the Han as a tributary vassal in 51 BC. Huhanye's rival claimant to the throne, Zhizhi Chanyu (سانچو:Reign), was killed by Han forces under Chen Tang and Gan Yanshou at the Battle of Zhizhi, in modern Taraz, Kazakhstan.[33][34]

In 121 BC, Han forces expelled the Xiongnu from a vast territory spanning the Hexi Corridor to Lop Nur. They repelled a joint Xiongnu-Qiang invasion of this northwestern territory in 111 BC. In that same year, the Han court established four new frontier commanderies in this region to consolidate their control: Jiuquan, Zhangyi, Dunhuang, and Wuwei.[35][36][37] The majority of people on the frontier were soldiers.[38] On occasion, the court forcibly moved peasant farmers to new frontier settlements, along with government-owned slaves and convicts who performed hard labour.[39] The court also encouraged commoners, such as farmers, merchants, landowners, and hired labourers, to voluntarily migrate to the frontier.[40]

The ruins of a Han dynasty watchtower made of rammed earth at Dunhuang, located at the eastern edge of the Silk Road

Even before the Han's expansion into Central Asia, diplomat Zhang Qian's travels from 139 to 125 BC had established Chinese contacts with many surrounding civilizations. Zhang encountered Dayuan (Fergana), Kangju (Sogdiana), and Daxia (Bactria, formerly the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom); he also gathered information on Shendu (the Indus River valley) and Anxi (the Parthian Empire). All of these countries eventually received Han embassies.[41][42][43][44][45] These connections marked the beginning of the Silk Road trade network that extended to the Roman Empire, bringing goods like Chinese silk and Roman glasswares between the two.[46][47]

From ت. 115 BC until ت. 60 BC, Han forces fought the Xiongnu over control of the oasis city-states in the Tarim Basin. The Han were eventually victorious and established the Protectorate of the Western Regions in 60 BC, which dealt with the region's defence and foreign affairs.[48][49][50][51] The Han also expanded southward. The naval conquest of Nanyue in 111 BC expanded the Han realm into what are now modern Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam. Yunnan was brought into the Han realm with the conquest of the Dian Kingdom in 109 BC, followed by parts of the Korean Peninsula with the Han conquest of Gojoseon and establishment of the Xuantu and Lelang commanderies in 108 BC.[52][53] The first nationwide census in Chinese history was taken in 2 AD; the Han's total population was registered as comprising 57,671,400 individuals across 12,366,470 households.[54]

To pay for his military campaigns and colonial expansion, Emperor Wu nationalised several private industries. He created central government monopolies administered largely by former merchants. These monopolies included salt, iron, and liquor production, as well as bronze coinage. The liquor monopoly lasted only from 98 to 81 BC, and the salt and iron monopolies were eventually abolished in the early Eastern Han. The issuing of coinage remained a central government monopoly throughout the rest of the Han dynasty.[55][56][57][58][59][lower-alpha 1]

The government monopolies were eventually repealed when a political faction known as the Reformists gained greater influence in the court. The Reformists opposed the Modernist faction that had dominated court politics in Emperor Wu's reign and during the subsequent regency of Huo Guang (سانچو:Died-in). The Modernists argued for an aggressive and expansionary foreign policy supported by revenues from heavy government intervention in the private economy. The Reformists, however, overturned these policies, favouring a cautious, non-expansionary approach to foreign policy, frugal budget reform, and lower tax-rates imposed on private entrepreneurs.[60][61][62]

Wang Mang's reign and civil war

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو Wang Mang ۽ Xin dynasty
A Western Han painted ceramic mounted cavalryman from a general's tomb at Xianyang, Shaanxi
A Western or Eastern Han bronze horse statuette with a lead saddle

Wang Zhengjun (71 BC – 13 AD) was first empress, then empress dowager, and finally grand empress dowager during the reigns of the Emperors Yuan (سانچو:Reign), Cheng (سانچو:Reign), and Ai (سانچو:Reign), respectively. During this time, a succession of her male relatives held the title of regent.[63][64] Following the death of Ai, Wang Zhengjun's nephew Wang Mang (45 BC – 23 AD) was appointed regent as Marshall of State on 16 August under Emperor Ping (سانچو:Reign1 BC – 6 AD).[65]

When Ping died on 3 February 6 AD, Ruzi Ying (سانچو:Died-in) was chosen as the heir and Wang Mang was appointed to serve as acting emperor for the child.[65] Wang promised to relinquish his control to Liu Ying once he came of age.[65] Despite this promise, and against protest and revolts from the nobility, Wang Mang claimed on 10 January that the divine Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the beginning of his own: the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD).[66][67][68]

Wang Mang initiated a series of major reforms that were ultimately unsuccessful. These reforms included outlawing slavery, nationalizing and equally distributing land between households, and introducing new currencies, a change which debased the value of coinage.[69][70][71][72] Although these reforms provoked considerable opposition, Wang's regime met its ultimate downfall with the massive floods of ت. 3 AD and 11 AD. Gradual silt build-up in the Yellow River had raised its water level and overwhelmed the flood control works. The Yellow River split into two new branches: one emptying to the north and the other to the south of the Shandong Peninsula, though Han engineers managed to dam the southern branch by 70 AD.[73][74][75]

The flood dislodged thousands of peasant farmers, many of whom joined roving bandit and rebel groups such as the Red Eyebrows to survive.[73][74][75] Wang Mang's armies were incapable of quelling these enlarged rebel groups. Eventually, an insurgent mob forced their way into the Weiyang Palace and killed Wang Mang.[76][77]

The Gengshi Emperor (سانچو:Reign), a descendant of Emperor Jing (سانچو:Reign), attempted to restore the Han dynasty and occupied Chang'an as his capital. However, he was overwhelmed by the Red Eyebrow rebels who deposed, assassinated, and replaced him with the puppet monarch Liu Penzi.[78][79] Gengshi's distant cousin Liu Xiu, known posthumously as Emperor Guangwu (سانچو:Reign), after distinguishing himself at the Battle of Kunyang in 23 AD, was urged to succeed Gengshi as emperor.[80][81]

Under Guangwu's rule, the Han Empire was restored. Guangwu made Luoyang his capital in 25 AD, and by 27 his officers Deng Yu and Feng Yi had forced the Red Eyebrows to surrender and executed their leaders for treason.[81][82] From 26 until 36 AD, Emperor Guangwu had to wage war against other regional warlords who claimed the title of emperor; when these warlords were defeated, China reunified under the Han.[83][84]

A Western Han period arrow from Inner Mongolia, now in the Gansu Provincial Museum, Lanzhou

The period between the foundation of the Han dynasty and Wang Mang's reign is known as the Western Han (سانچو:Zhi) or Former Han (سانچو:Zhi) (206 BC – 9 AD). During this period the capital was at Chang'an (modern Xi'an). From the reign of Guangwu the capital was moved eastward to Luoyang. The era from his reign until the fall of Han is known as the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD).[85]

Eastern Han (25–220 AD)

[سنواريو]

The Eastern Han (روايتي چيني: 東漢; چيني حرف: 东汉; پينين: Dōnghàn), also known as the Later Han (سانچو:Zhi), formally began on 5 August AD 25, when Liu Xiu became Emperor Guangwu of Han.[86] During the widespread rebellion against Wang Mang, the state of Goguryeo was free to raid Han's Korean commanderies; Han did not reaffirm its control over the region until AD 30.[87]

The Trưng Sisters of Vietnam rebelled against Han in AD 40. Their rebellion was crushed by Han general Ma Yuan (سانچو:Died-in) in a campaign from AD 42 to 43.[88][89] Wang Mang renewed hostilities against the Xiongnu, who were estranged from Han until their leader Bi (سانچو:Zhi), a rival claimant to the throne against his cousin Punu (سانچو:Zhi), submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in AD 50. This created two rival Xiongnu states: the Southern Xiongnu led by Bi, an ally of Han, and the Northern Xiongnu led by Punu, an enemy of Han.[90][91]

During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, China lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Northern Xiongnu in AD 63 and used as a base to invade the Hexi Corridor in Gansu.[92] Dou Gu (سانچو:Died-in) defeated the Northern Xiongnu at the Battle of Yiwulu in AD 73, evicting them from Turpan and chasing them as far as Lake Barkol before establishing a garrison at Hami.[93] After the new Protector General of the Western Regions Chen Mu (سانچو:Died-in) was killed by allies of the Xiongnu in Karasahr and Kucha, the garrison at Hami was withdrawn.[93][94]

At the Battle of Ikh Bayan in AD 89, Dou Xian (سانچو:Died-in) defeated the Northern Xiongnu chanyu who then retreated into the Altai Mountains.[93][95] After the Northern Xiongnu fled into the Ili River valley in AD 91, the nomadic Xianbei occupied the area from the borders of the Buyeo Kingdom in Manchuria to the Ili River of the Wusun people.[96] The Xianbei reached their apogee under Tanshihuai (سانچو:Died-in), who consistently defeated Chinese armies. However, Tanshihuai's confederation disintegrated after his death.[97]

Eastern Han inscriptions on a lead ingot, using the Greek alphabet in the style of the Kushans, excavated in Shaanxi, 1st–2nd centuries AD – Gansu Provincial Museum[98]

Ban Chao (سانچو:Died-in) enlisted the aid of the Kushan Empire, which controlled territory across South and Central Asia, to subdue Kashgar and its ally Sogdiana.[99][100] When a request by Kushan ruler Vima Kadphises (سانچو:Reign) for a marriage alliance with the Han was rejected in AD 90, he sent his forces to Wakhan (modern-day Afghanistan) to attack Ban Chao. The conflict ended with the Kushans withdrawing because of lack of supplies.[99][100] In AD 91, the office of Protector General of the Western Regions was reinstated when it was bestowed on Ban Chao.[101]

Foreign travellers to the Eastern Han empire included Buddhist monks who translated works into Chinese, such as An Shigao from Parthia, and Lokaksema from Kushan-era Gandhara.[102][103] In addition to tributary relations with the Kushans, the Han empire received gifts from sovereigns in the Parthian Empire, as well as from kings in modern Burma and Japan. He also initiated an unsuccessful mission to Rome in AD 97 with Gan Ying as emissary.[104][105]

A Roman embassy of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (سانچو:Reign) is recorded in the Weilüe and Book of Later Han to have reached the court of Emperor Huan of Han (سانچو:Reign) in AD 166,[106] yet Rafe de Crespigny asserts that this was most likely a group of Roman merchants.[107][108] In addition to Roman glasswares and coins found in China,[109][110] Roman medallions from the reign of Antoninus Pius and his adopted son Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo in Vietnam.[110][111] This was near the commandery of Rinan where Chinese sources claim the Romans first landed, as well as embassies from Tianzhu in northern India in 159 and 161.[112] Óc Eo is also thought to be the port city "Cattigara" described by Ptolemy in his Geography (سانچو:Cx) as lying east of the Golden Chersonese (Malay Peninsula) along the Magnus Sinus (i.e. the Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea), where a Greek sailor had visited.[113][114][115][116]

Emperor Zhang's (سانچو:Reign) reign came to be viewed by later Eastern Han scholars as the high point of the dynastic house.[117] Subsequent reigns were increasingly marked by eunuch intervention in court politics and their involvement in the violent power struggles of the imperial consort clans.[118][119] In 92 AD, with the aid of the eunuch Zheng Zhong (سانچو:Died-in), Emperor He (سانچو:Reign) had Empress Dowager Dou (سانچو:Died-in) put under house arrest and her clan stripped of power. This was in revenge for Dou's purging of the clan of his natural mother—Consort Liang—and then concealing her identity from him.[120][121] After Emperor He's death, his wife Empress Deng Sui (سانچو:Died-in) managed state affairs as the regent empress dowager during a turbulent financial crisis and widespread Qiang rebellion that lasted from 107 to 118 AD.[122][123]

When Empress Dowager Deng died, Emperor An (سانچو:Reign) was convinced by the accusations of the eunuchs Li Run (李閏) and Jiang Jing (江京) that Deng and her family had planned to depose him. An dismissed Deng's clan members from office, exiled them, and forced many to commit suicide.[124][125] After An's death, his wife, Empress Dowager Yan (سانچو:Died-in) placed the child Marquess of Beixiang on the throne in an attempt to retain power within her family. However, palace eunuch Sun Cheng (سانچو:Died-in) masterminded a successful overthrow of her regime to enthrone Emperor Shun of Han (سانچو:Reign). Yan was placed under house arrest, her relatives were either killed or exiled, and her eunuch allies were slaughtered.[126][127] The regent Liang Ji (سانچو:Died-in), brother of Empress Liang Na (سانچو:Died-in), had the brother-in-law of Consort Deng Mengnü (سانچو:Died-in) killed after Deng Mengnü resisted Liang Ji's attempts to control her. Afterward, Emperor Huan employed eunuchs to depose Liang Ji, who was then forced to commit suicide.[128][129]

A mural showing women dressed in traditional hanfu from the late Eastern Han-era Dahuting Tomb in Zhengzhou, Henan

Students from the imperial university organized a widespread student protest against the eunuchs of Emperor Huan's court.[130] Huan further alienated the bureaucracy when he initiated grandiose construction projects and hosted thousands of concubines in his harem at a time of economic crisis.[131][132] Palace eunuchs imprisoned the official Li Ying (李膺) and his associates from the Imperial University on a dubious charge of treason. In 167 AD, the Grand Commandant Dou Wu (سانچو:Died-in) convinced his son-in-law, Emperor Huan, to release them.[133] However, the emperor permanently barred Li Ying and his associates from serving in office, marking the beginning of the Partisan Prohibitions.[133]

Following Huan's death, Dou Wu and the Grand Tutor Chen Fan (سانچو:Died-in) attempted a coup against the eunuchs Hou Lan (سانچو:Died-in), Cao Jie (سانچو:Died-in), and Wang Fu (王甫). When the plot was uncovered, the eunuchs arrested Empress Dowager Dou (سانچو:Died-in) and Chen Fan. General Zhang Huan (張奐) favoured the eunuchs. He and his troops confronted Dou Wu and his retainers at the palace gate where each side shouted accusations of treason against the other. When the retainers gradually deserted Dou Wu, he was forced to commit suicide.[134]

Under Emperor Ling (سانچو:Reign) the eunuchs had the partisan prohibitions renewed and expanded, while also auctioning off top government offices.[135][136] Many affairs of state were entrusted to the eunuchs Zhao Zhong (سانچو:Died-in) and Zhang Rang (سانچو:Died-in) while Emperor Ling spent much of his time roleplaying with concubines and participating in military parades.[137]

End of the Han dynasty

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو End of the Han dynasty

The Partisan Prohibitions were repealed during the Yellow Turban Rebellion and Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion in 184 AD, largely because the court did not want to continue to alienate a significant portion of the gentry class who might otherwise join the rebellions.[135] The Yellow Turbans and Five-Pecks-of-Rice adherents belonged to two different hierarchical Taoist religious societies led by faith healers Zhang Jue (سانچو:Died-in) and Zhang Lu (سانچو:Died-in), respectively.

Zhang Lu's rebellion, in what is now northern Sichuan and southern Shaanxi, was not quelled until 215 AD.[138] Zhang Jue's massive rebellion across eight provinces was annihilated by Han forces within a year; however, the following decades saw much smaller recurrent uprisings.[139] Although the Yellow Turbans were defeated, many generals appointed during the crisis never disbanded their assembled militias and used these troops to amass power outside of the collapsing imperial authority.[140]

General-in-chief He Jin (سانچو:Died-in), half-brother to Empress He (سانچو:Died-in), plotted with Yuan Shao (سانچو:Died-in) to overthrow the eunuchs by having several generals march to the outskirts of the capital. There, in a written petition to Empress He, they demanded the eunuchs' execution.[141] After a period of hesitation, Empress He consented. When the eunuchs discovered this, however, they had her brother He Miao (何苗) rescind the order.[142] The eunuchs assassinated He Jin on 22 September 189.

Yuan Shao then besieged Luoyang's Northern Palace while his brother Yuan Shu (سانچو:Died-in) besieged the Southern Palace. On September 25 both palaces were breached and approximately two thousand eunuchs were killed.[143][144] Zhang Rang had previously fled with Emperor Shao (سانچو:Reign) and his brother Liu Xie—the future Emperor Xian of Han (سانچو:Reign). While being pursued by the Yuan brothers, Zhang committed suicide by jumping into the Yellow River.[145]

General Dong Zhuo (سانچو:Died-in) found the young emperor and his brother wandering in the countryside. He escorted them safely back to the capital and was made Minister of Works, taking control of Luoyang and forcing Yuan Shao to flee.[146] After Dong Zhuo demoted Emperor Shao and promoted his brother Liu Xie as Emperor Xian, Yuan Shao led a coalition of former officials and officers against Dong, who burned Luoyang to the ground and resettled the court at Chang'an in May 191 AD. Dong Zhuo later poisoned Emperor Shao.[147]

Dong was killed by his adopted son Lü Bu (سانچو:Died-in) in a plot hatched by Wang Yun (سانچو:Died-in).[148] Emperor Xian fled from Chang'an in 195 AD to the ruins of Luoyang. Xian was persuaded by Cao Cao (155–220 AD), then Governor of Yan Province in modern western Shandong and eastern Henan, to move the capital to Xuchang in 196 AD.[149][150]

Yuan Shao challenged Cao Cao for control over the emperor. Yuan's power was greatly diminished after Cao defeated him at the Battle of Guandu in 200 AD. After Yuan died, Cao killed Yuan Shao's son Yuan Tan (173–205 AD), who had fought with his brothers over the family inheritance.[151][152] His brothers Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi were killed in 207 AD by Gongsun Kang (سانچو:Died-in), who sent their heads to Cao Cao.[151][152]

After Cao's defeat at the naval Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD, China was divided into three spheres of influence, with Cao Cao dominating the north, Sun Quan (182–252 AD) dominating the south, and Liu Bei (161–223 AD) dominating the west.[153][154] Cao Cao died in March 220 AD. By December his son Cao Pi (187–226 AD) had Emperor Xian relinquish the throne to him and is known posthumously as Emperor Wen of Wei. This formally ended the Han dynasty and initiated an age of conflict between the Three Kingdoms: Cao Wei, Eastern Wu, and Shu Han.[155][156]

ثقافت ۽ سماج

[سنواريو]

حڪومت ۽ سياست

[سنواريو]

معيشت

[سنواريو]

سائنس ۽ ٽيڪنالاجي

[سنواريو]

پڻ ڏسو

[سنواريو]
These rammed earth ruins of a granary in Hecang Fortress (سانچو:Zhi), located approximately 11 km (7 mi) northeast of the Western Han-era Yumen Pass, were built during the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) and was significantly rebuilt during the Western Jin (280–316 AD).[157]
Bronze seal of a Xiongnu chieftain with impression and transcription, conferred by the Eastern Han government and inscribed with the following text: 漢匈奴，歸義親，漢長 ("The Chief of the Han Xiongnu, who have returned to righteousness and embraced the Han")[158]
Eastern Han tombs sometimes have depiction of battles between Hu barbarians, with bows and arrows and wearing pointed hats (left), against Han troops – Eastern Han-era, Tsangshan tomb, Linyi. Also visible in the Yinan tombs.[159]
Provinces and commanderies in 219 AD, the penultimate year of the Han dynasty

The Han emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society and culture. He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and the appointed ministers who came largely from the scholarly gentry class. The Han Empire was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government called commanderies, as well as a number of semi-autonomous kingdoms. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States. From the reign of Emperor Wu (سانچو:Reign) onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu.

The Han dynasty oversaw periods of economic prosperity as well as significant growth in the money economy that had first been established during the Zhou dynasty (ت. 1050–256 BC). The coinage minted by the central government in 119 BC remained the standard in China until the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). The period saw a number of modest institutional innovations. To finance its military campaigns and the settlement of newly conquered frontier territories, the Han government nationalised private salt and iron industries in 117 BC, creating government monopolies that were later repealed during the Eastern period. There were significant advances in science and technology during the Han period, including the emergence of papermaking, rudders for steering ships, negative numbers in mathematics, raised-relief maps, hydraulic-powered armillary spheres for astronomy, and seismometers that discerned the cardinal direction of distant earthquakes by use of inverted pendulums.

The Han dynasty had many conflicts with the Xiongnu, a nomadic confederation centred in the eastern Eurasian steppe.[160] The Xiongnu defeated the Han in 200 BC, prompting the Han to appease the Xiongnu with a policy of marriage alliance and payments of tribute, though the Xiongnu continued to raid the Han's northern borders. Han policy changed in 133 BC, under Emperor Wu, when Han forces began a series of military campaigns to quell the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu were eventually defeated and forced to accept a status as Han vassals, and the Xiongnu confederation fragmented. The Han conquered the Hexi Corridor and Inner Asian territory of the Tarim Basin from the Xiongnu, helping to establish the Silk Road. The lands north of the Han's borders were later overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Emperor Wu also launched successful conquests in the south, annexing Nanyue in 111 BC and Dian in 109 BC. He further expanded Han territory into the northern Korean Peninsula, where Han forces conquered Gojoseon and established the Xuantu and Lelang commanderies in 108 BC.

After 92 AD, palace eunuchs increasingly involved themselves in the dynasty's court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between various consort clans of the empresses and empresses dowager. Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by large Taoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion. Following the death of Emperor Ling (سانچو:Reign), the palace eunuchs were massacred by military officers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and divide the empire. The Han dynasty came to an end in 220 AD when Cao Pi, king of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian. هان خاندان (سخاوتي چيني ۾ :漢, اسان چيني ۾:漢) چين جو هڪ شاهي خاندان هو (202 ق.م. – 9 عيسوي، 25 کان 220 عيسوي) ليو بينگ پاران قائم ڪيل ۽ ليو جي گهراڻي حڪمراني هيٺ. هن خاندان کان پهرين مختصر مدت تائن قين خاندان (221-206) هو. ق.م) جي حڪومت ھوئي ۽ ھن جي درميان هڪ جنگي دور جنهن کي چو-هان تڪرار (206-202) جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. ق.م)، ۽ ان جي جاءِ تي ٽن بادشاهتن جو دور (220-280) آيو. (ع). خاندان کي مختصر طور تي شين خاندان (9-23) طرفان پريشن ڪيو ويو ويو. عيسوي) کي باغي ريجنٽ وانگ منگ پاران قائم ڪيو ويو، ۽ ان ڪري ٻن دورن ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي - مغربي هان (202 ق.م. – 9 عيسوي) ۽ اوڀر هان (25-220) (ع). چئن صدين کان وڌيڪ عرصي تي پکڙيل، هان خاندان کي چيني تاريخ ۾ هڪ سونهري دور سمجهيو ويندو آهي. ۽ بعد جي دورن ۾ چيني سڃاڻپ تي داڍو اثر ڇڏي وئي آ. [161] جديد چين جو اڪثريتي نسلي گروهه پاڻ کي " هان ماڻهو " يا "هان چيني" سڏين ٿا. ڳالهائي ويندڙ چيني ۽ لکيل چيني کي ترتيب وار "هان ٻولي" ۽ " هان ڪردار " سڏيو ويندو آهي. [162]

هان شهنشاهه هان سماج ۽ ثقافت جي عروج پنھنجي تي پهچايو. هن هان حڪومت تي صدارت ڪئي پر اميرن ۽ مقرر ڪيل وزيرن ٻنهي سان طاقت شيئر ڪئي جيڪي گهڻو ڪري عالم سٿي طبقي مان هئا. هان سلطنت کي مرڪزي حڪومت جي سڌي طرح ڪنٽرول وارن علائقن ۾ ورهايو ويو هو جن کي ڪمانڊريون سڏيو ويندو هو، انهي سان گڏ ڪيتريون ئي نيم خودمختيار بادشاهتون پڻ هيون. اهي بادشاهتون آهستي آهستي پنهنجي آزادي جا سڀئي نشان وڃائي ويٺيون، خاص طور تي ستن رياستن جي بغاوت کان پوءِ. شهنشاهه وو ( سانچو:Reign ) کان پوءِ، چيني عدالت سرڪاري طور تي تعليم ۽ عدالتي سياست ۾ ڪنفيوشس ازم جي سرپرستي ڪئي، جنهن کي بعد ۾ عالمن جهڙوڪ ڊونگ ژونگشو جي ڪائنات جي علم سان گڏ ڪيو ويو.

حوالا

[سنواريو]
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  3. ↑ Zhou (2003), p. 34.
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  127. ↑ de Crespigny (2007), pp. 473–474, 582–583.
  128. ↑ Bielenstein (1986), pp. 285–286.
  129. ↑ de Crespigny (2007), pp. 597–598.
  130. ↑ Hansen (2000), p. 141.
  131. ↑ de Crespigny (2007), pp. 597, 599, 601–602.
  132. ↑ Hansen (2000), pp. 141–142.
  133. ↑ 133.0 133.1 de Crespigny (2007), p. 602.
  134. ↑ Beck (1986), pp. 319–322.
  135. ↑ 135.0 135.1 de Crespigny (2007), p. 511.
  136. ↑ Beck (1986), p. 323.
  137. ↑ de Crespigny (2007), pp. 513–514.
  138. ↑ Ebrey (1986), pp. 628–629.
  139. ↑ Beck (1986), pp. 339–340.
  140. ↑ Ebrey (1999), p. 84.
  141. ↑ Beck (1986), pp. 339–344.
  142. ↑ Beck (1986), p. 344.
  143. ↑ Beck (1986), pp. 344–345.
  144. ↑ Morton & Lewis (2005), p. 62.
  145. ↑ Beck (1986), p. 345.
  146. ↑ Beck (1986), pp. 345–346.
  147. ↑ Beck (1986), pp. 346–349.
  148. ↑ de Crespigny (2007), p. 158.
  149. ↑ Beck (1986), pp. 349–351.
  150. ↑ de Crespigny (2007), p. 36.
  151. ↑ 151.0 151.1 Beck (1986), pp. 351–352.
  152. ↑ 152.0 152.1 de Crespigny (2007), pp. 36–37.
  153. ↑ Beck (1986), p. 352.
  154. ↑ de Crespigny (2007), p. 37.
  155. ↑ Beck (1986), pp. 353–357.
  156. ↑ Hinsch (2002), p. 206.
  157. ↑ Wang، Li & Zhang (2010), pp. 351–352.
  158. ↑ Psarras (2015), p. 19.
  159. ↑ Bi (2019).
  160. ↑ Bailey (1985), pp. 25–26.
  161. ↑ Zhou (2003).
  162. ↑ Schaefer (2008).

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