مواد ڏانھن هلو

نھرو

ڳنڍڻن کي سنواريو
کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
(نهرو مادو کان چوريل)

نَھرَو مادي جي ٽن بنيادي شڪلين مان ھڪ آھي. مادي جي ھن حالت ۾ ائٽم ھڪٻئي سان بنھ ڳتيل ھوندا آھن. ھن حالت کي مخصوص شڪل ۽ مقدار ٿيندو آهي.

مضبوط انسولين جي هڪ ڪرسٽل شڪل.

نهرو، ٺوس يا سالڊ (Solid) مادي جي هڪ اهڙي حالت آهي جنهن ۾ ايٽم ويجهڙائي سان ڀريل هوندا آهن ۽ اها هڪ ٻئي کان اڳتي نه ٿا وڌي سگهن. ٺوس دٻاءُ، ڦهلڻ يا ٻاهرين قوتن، جيڪيون ان جي شڪل کي تبديل ڪنديون آهن، انهن جي مزاحمت جي درجي سان، جي مزاحمت، جيڪا غور هيٺ مخصوص مواد تي منحصر آهي، ڪندا آهن.

ٺوس شين جي هر ايٽم يا ماليڪيول ۾، مادي جي ٻين حالتن جي نسبت، يا برابر بيان ڪيل ٺوس شين، جيڪيون ٺهن ٿيون، جڏهن مادو مائع يا گئس جي مرحلي ۾، هڪ خاص گرميء پد کان هيٺ ٿڌو ڪيو ويندو آهي، هميش گهٽ ۾ گهٽ حرڪي توانائي هوندي آهي. هن گرمي پد کي ان مادي پگھلڻ جو نقطو سڏيو ويندو آهي. ۽ اهو هڪ اندروني ملڪيت آهي (يعني ان کان آزاد ته مادو ڪيترو آهي). ٺوس شين ۾ سڀ مادو ڪجهه حالتن هيٺ خوردبيني پيماني تي ترتيب ڏئي سگهجي ٿو. * ٺوس شين جي خاصيت ساخت جي سختي (۽ لاڳو ٿيل ٻاهرين قوتن جي مزاحمت) ۽ دٻاءُ سان آهي. مائع شين جي برعڪس. ٺوس شيون پنهنجي ڪنٽينر جي شڪل وٺڻ لاءِ نه وهنديون آهن (۽ نه ئي اهي گئس وانگر پوري دستياب حجم کي ڀرڻ لاءِ وڌنديون آهن). ٻين ٽن بنيادي مرحلن وانگر. گرم ٿيڻ تي ٺوس شيون پڻ وڌنديون آهن. حرارتي توانائي فاصلو وڌائڻ ۾ لڳائي ٿي (۽ ايٽم جي وچ ۾ امڪاني توانائي کي گهٽائڻ ۾). بهرحال. ٺوس شيون اهو تمام گهٽ حد تائين ڪن ٿيون. جڏهن انهن جي پگھلڻ واري نقطي يا سبليميشن پوائنٽ تائين گرم ڪيو ويندو آهي. ٺوس شيون مائع ۾ ڳرنديون آهن يا سڌو سنئون گئس ۾ تبديل ٿينديون آهن. ترتيب وار.


a state of matter in which atoms are closely packed and cannot move past each other. Solids resist compression, expansion, or external forces that would alter its shape, with the degree to which they are resisted dependent upon the specific material under consideration.[1] Solids also always possess the least amount of kinetic energy per atom/molecule relative to other phases[2] or, equivalently stated, solids are formed when matter in the liquid / gas phase is cooled below a certain temperature.[3] This temperature is called the melting point[4] of that substance and is an intrinsic[5] property, i.e. independent of how much of the matter there is. All matter in solids can be arranged on a microscopic scale under certain conditions.[6]

Solids are characterized by structural rigidity and resistance to applied external forces and pressure.[2] Unlike liquids, solids do not flow to take on the shape of their container, nor do they expand to fill the entire available volume like a gas.[7] Much like the other three fundamental phases, solids also expand when heated,[8] the thermal energy put into increasing the distance and reducing the potential energy between atoms. However, solids do this to a much lesser extent.[9][10] When heated to their melting point or sublimation point, solids melt into a liquid or sublimate directly into a gas, respectively. For solids that directly sublimate into a gas, the melting point is replaced by the sublimation point.[11] As a rule of thumb, melting will occur if the subjected pressure is higher than the substance's triple point pressure,[12] and sublimation will occur otherwise.[13] Melting and melting points refer exclusively to transitions between solids and liquids.[14] Melting occurs across a great extent of temperatures, ranging from 0.10 K for helium-3 under 30 bars (3 MPa) of pressure,[15] to around 4,200 K at 1 atm for the composite refractory material hafnium carbonitride.[16]

The atoms in a solid are tightly bound to each other in one of two ways: regular geometric lattices called crystalline solids (e.g. metals, water ice), or irregular arrangements called amorphous solids (e.g. glass, plastic).[17] Molecules and atoms forming crystalline lattices usually organize themselves in a few well-characterized packing structures,[17] such as body-centered cubic. The adopted structure can and will vary between various pressures and temperatures, as can be seen in phase diagrams of the material (e.g. that of water, see left and upper). When the material is composed of a single species of atom/molecule, the phases are designated as allotropes for atoms (e.g. diamond / graphite for carbon), and as polymorphs (e.g. calcite / aragonite for calcium carbonate)[18] for molecules.

Non-porous solids invariably strongly resist any amount of compression that would otherwise result in a decrease of total volume regardless of temperature,[19] owing to the mutual-repulsion of neighboring electron clouds among its constituent atoms.[19][20] In contrast to solids, gases are very easily compressed as the molecules in a gas are far apart with few intermolecular interactions.[21] Some solids, especially metallic alloys, can be deformed or pulled apart with enough force. The degree to which this solid resists deformation in differing directions and axes are quantified by the elastic modulus, tensile strength, specific strength, as well as other measurable quantities.[22]

For the vast majority of substances, the solid phases have the highest density,[12] moderately higher than that of the liquid phase (if there exists one), and solid blocks of these materials will sink below their liquids.[23] Exceptions include water (icebergs), gallium, and plutonium.[24][25] All naturally occurring elements on the periodic table have a melting point at standard atmospheric pressure, with three exceptions: the noble gas helium, which remains a liquid even at absolute zero owing to zero-point energy;[26] the metalloid arsenic, sublimating around 900 K;[27] and the life-forming element carbon, which sublimates around 3,950 K.[28]

When applied pressure is released, solids will (very) rapidly re-expand and release the stored energy in the process[20] in a manner somewhat similar to those of gases. An example of this is the (oft-attempted) confinement of freezing water in an inflexible container (of steel, for example).[29] The gradual freezing results in an increase in volume,[30] as ice is less dense than water.[31] With no additional volume to expand into, water ice subjects the interior to intense pressures, causing the container to explode with great force.[29][32]

Solids' properties on a macroscopic scale can also depend on whether it is contiguous or not. Contiguous (non-aggregate) solids are characterized by structural rigidity (as in rigid bodies) and strong resistance to applied forces.[2] For solids aggregates (e.g. gravel, sand, dust on lunar surface[33]), solid particles can easily slip past one another,[34] though changes of individual particles (quartz particles for sand) will still be greatly hindered.[35] This leads to a perceived softness and ease of compression by operators.[36] An illustrating example is the non-firmness of coastal sand[34]and of the lunar regolith.[33]

The branch of physics that deals with solids is called solid-state physics,[37] and is a major branch of condensed matter physics (which includes liquids).[38] Materials science, also one of its numerous branches, is primarily concerned with the way in which a solid's composition and its properties are intertwined.[39]


حوالا

[سنواريو]
  1. ↑ "Young's Modulus of Elasticity – Values for Common Materials", www.engineeringtoolbox.com (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), حاصل ڪيل 18 مارچ 2025۔
  2. 1 2 3 "Solid | Definition & Facts | Britannica", www.britannica.com (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), 12 مارچ 2025, حاصل ڪيل 18 مارچ 2025۔
  3. ↑ Cramb, A. W. (01 جنوري 2005), "10 - Solidification and steel casting", ۾ Seetharaman, Seshadri, Fundamentals of Metallurgy, Woodhead Publishing Series in Metals and Surface Engineering (Woodhead Publishing): 399–452, آئي ايس بي اين 978-1-85573-927-7, حاصل ڪيل 18 مارچ 2025۔
  4. ↑ "Melting point | Definition & Facts | Britannica", www.britannica.com (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), 19 فيبروري 2025, حاصل ڪيل 18 مارچ 2025۔
  5. ↑ "16.04.04: Properties of Matter: A Forensic Science Approach", teachersinstitute.yale.edu, حاصل ڪيل 18 مارچ 2025۔
  6. ↑ updated, Mary Bagley last (20 آڪٽوبر 2022), "Matter: Definition & the Five States of Matter", livescience.com (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), حاصل ڪيل 18 مارچ 2025۔
  7. ↑ "7.2: Solids, Liquids, and Gases", Chemistry LibreTexts (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), 03 جولاءِ 2014, حاصل ڪيل 18 مارچ 2025۔
  8. ↑ Allain, Rhett, "Why Do Solids Expand When Heated?", Wired (ٻولي ۾ en-US), آئي ايس ايس اين 1059-1028, حاصل ڪيل 18 مارچ 2025۔
  9. ↑ Elert, Glenn (2025), "Thermal Expansion", The Physics Hypertextbook (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي) (hypertextbook), حاصل ڪيل 18 مارچ 2025۔
  10. ↑ "Why solids expand on heating", Physics Stack Exchange (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), حاصل ڪيل 18 مارچ 2025۔
  11. ↑ "3: Phase Changes", Chemistry LibreTexts (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), 12 جولاءِ 2019, حاصل ڪيل 19 مارچ 2025۔
  12. 1 2 "Phase Diagrams", Chemistry LibreTexts (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), 02 آڪٽوبر 2013, حاصل ڪيل 19 مارچ 2025۔
  13. ↑ "Melting versus Sublimation", www.av8n.com, حاصل ڪيل 19 مارچ 2025۔
  14. ↑ "12.5: Melting, Freezing, and Sublimation", Chemistry LibreTexts (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), 25 فيبروري 2020, حاصل ڪيل 19 مارچ 2025۔
  15. ↑ Berglund, Peter, Deutsch: Phasendiagramm 3He, حاصل ڪيل 19 مارچ 2025۔
  16. ↑ Cedillos-Barraza, Omar; Manara, Dario; Boboridis, K.; Watkins, Tyson; Grasso, Salvatore; Jayaseelan, Daniel D.; Konings, Rudy J. M.; Reece, Michael J. et al. (2016-12-01). "Investigating the highest melting temperature materials: A laser melting study of the TaC-HfC system" (en ۾). Scientific Reports 6 (1): 37962. doi:10.1038/srep37962. ISSN 2045-2322. PMID 27905481. Bibcode: 2016NatSR...637962C.
  17. 1 2 "Properties of solids", www.chem.fsu.edu, حاصل ڪيل 18 مارچ 2025۔
  18. ↑ Boulos, Ramiz A.; Zhang, Fei; Tjandra, Edwin S.; Martin, Adam D.; Spagnoli, Dino; Raston, Colin L. (2014-01-22). "Spinning up the polymorphs of calcium carbonate" (en ۾). Scientific Reports 4 (1): 3616. doi:10.1038/srep03616. ISSN 2045-2322. PMID 24448077. Bibcode: 2014NatSR...4.3616B.
  19. 1 2 DEGENERACY PRESSURE IN A SOLID
  20. 1 2 TodayIFoundOut.com, Karl Smallwood- (14 جنوري 2014), "What Happens When Water Freezes in a Box So Strong It Can't Expand?", Gizmodo (ٻولي ۾ en-US), حاصل ڪيل 18 مارچ 2025۔
  21. ↑ "14.1: Compressibility", Chemistry LibreTexts (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), 27 جون 2016, حاصل ڪيل 19 مارچ 2025۔
  22. ↑ "Mechanics of Materials: Strain » Mechanics of Slender Structures | Boston University", www.bu.edu, حاصل ڪيل 19 مارچ 2025۔
  23. ↑ Communications, Grainger Engineering Office of Marketing and, "Densities of Solids and Liquids", van.physics.illinois.edu (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), حاصل ڪيل 19 مارچ 2025۔
  24. ↑ "FAQ: Water expansion on freezing", iapws.org, حاصل ڪيل 19 مارچ 2025۔
  25. ↑ staff (30 آگسٽ 2017), "Water Expansion When Freezing", Science Facts (ٻولي ۾ en-US), حاصل ڪيل 19 مارچ 2025۔
  26. ↑ "Solid helium 4 and zero–point energy" (English ۾). Physics & Astronomy International Journal 2 (2). 2018-03-16. doi:10.15406/paij.2018.02.00063. ISSN 2576-4543. https://medcraveonline.com/PAIJ/solid-helium-4-and-zerondashpoint-energy.html.
  27. ↑ "Foundry - Lexicon", www.giessereilexikon.com (ٻولي ۾ en-EN), حاصل ڪيل 19 مارچ 2025۔
  28. ↑ Abrahamson, J. (1974-04-01). "Graphite sublimation temperatures, carbon arcs and crystallite erosion". Carbon 12 (2): 111–141. doi:10.1016/0008-6223(74)90019-0. ISSN 0008-6223. Bibcode: 1974Carbo..12..111A. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0008622374900190.
  29. 1 2 "Demo 32: Ice Bomb", www-chem.ucsd.edu, حاصل ڪيل 19 مارچ 2025۔
  30. ↑ Powell-Palm, Matthew J.; Rubinsky, Boris; Sun, Wenhao (2020-02-21). "Freezing water at constant volume and under confinement" (en ۾). Communications Physics 3 (1): 39. doi:10.1038/s42005-020-0303-9. ISSN 2399-3650. Bibcode: 2020CmPhy...3...39P. https://www.nature.com/articles/s42005-020-0303-9.
  31. ↑ "Explore - All About Ice - Amazing Expanding Ice", Lunar and Planetary Institute (LPI) (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), حاصل ڪيل 19 مارچ 2025۔
  32. ↑ "Risk of Explosion of Plastic Water Bottles When Frozen And Prevention Measures", KimEcopak (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), 24 جنوري 2024, حاصل ڪيل 19 مارچ 2025۔
  33. 1 2 "Dust: An Out-of-This World Problem - NASA" (ٻولي ۾ en-US), 08 جون 2021, حاصل ڪيل 19 مارچ 2025۔
  34. 1 2 Munroe, Randall (2020-11-09). "What Makes Sand Soft?" (en-US ۾). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/09/science/what-makes-sand-soft.html.
  35. ↑ "Construction Aggregates 101: What They Are (and Why They Matter)", www.aem.org (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), حاصل ڪيل 18 مارچ 2025۔
  36. ↑ "Apollo 11 Image Library", www.nasa.gov, حاصل ڪيل 19 مارچ 2025۔
  37. ↑ "Solid State Physics - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics", www.sciencedirect.com, حاصل ڪيل 18 مارچ 2025۔
  38. ↑ "Condensed Matter Physics - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics", www.sciencedirect.com, حاصل ڪيل 18 مارچ 2025۔
  39. ↑ "Materials science | Definition, Types, Study, & Facts | Britannica", www.britannica.com (ٻولي ۾ انگريزي), 07 مارچ 2025, حاصل ڪيل 18 مارچ 2025۔

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