ماورائيت (فلسفو)

فلسفي ۾، ماورائيت (Transcendence) لفظ جي لفظي معنيٰ (لاطيني مان) مان نڪتل بنيادي تصور آهي، جنهن جو مطلب چڙهڻ يا اڳتي وڌڻ آهي، جيتوڻيڪ ان جي مختلف تاريخي ۽ ثقافتي مرحلن ۾ مختلف معنيٰ سان آيو آهي. ان ۾ فلسفا، نظام ۽ طريقا شامل آهن، جيڪا وجود جي بنيادي بناوتن کي، نه ته هڪ آنٽولوجي (وجود جو نظريو)، پر وجود جي علم جي ظهور ۽ تصديق جي فريم ورڪ جي طور تي بيان ڪن ٿا. اهي تعريفون عام طور تي دليل ۽ تجرباتي مشاهدي تي ٻڌل آهن ۽ دنيا کي سمجهڻ لاءِ هڪ فريم ورڪ فراهم ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪن ٿيون جيڪو مذهبي عقيدن يا مافوق الفطرت قوتن تي ڀروسو نه ڪري. "ماورائيت" هڪ عالمانه لفظ آهي، جيڪو مخلوقات جي اضافي درجي جي خاصيتن کي نامزد ڪري ٿو.

مذهبي تعريف

پڻ ڏسو: ماورائيت (مذهب)

مذهب ۾، "ماورائيت" (Transcendence) مان مراد خدا جي ذات ۽ طاقت جو اهو پهلو آهي جيڪو مادي ڪائنات کان مڪمل طور تي آزاد ۽ سمورن طبعي قانونن کان مٿانهون هجي. ان جي ابتڙ "اندروني موجودگي" (Immanence) جو تصور آهي، جنهن ۾ چيو ويندو آهي ته خدا طبعي دنيا ۾ مڪمل طور تي موجود آهي ۽ ان ڪري مختلف طريقن سان مخلوق جي پهچ ۾ آهي. مذهبي تجربي ۾، ماورائيت وجود جي هڪ اهڙي حالت آهي جيڪا طبعي وجود جي حدن کان مٿانهون ٿي چڪي هجي ۽ ڪجهه وصفن موجب ان کان آزاد به ٿي وئي هجي. اهو عام طور تي دعا، روحاني رابطي، مراقبي، نفسياتي اثر رکندڙ شين (psychedelics) ۽ مافوق الفطرت "مشاهدن" ذريعي ظاهر ٿيندو آهي.

ان جي تصديق مختلف مذهبي روايتن جي خدائي تصور ۾ ڪئي وئي آهي، جيڪو ان تصور جي ابتڙ آهي جنهن ۾ خدا يا "مطلق حقيقت" اها آهي، جيڪي طبعي نظام ۾ موجود هجي (Immanentism)، يا ان کان الڳ نه هجي (Pantheism). ماورائيت کي خدائي ذات سان نه رڳو ان جي وجود جي حوالي سان، پر ان جي علم جي حوالي سان به منسوب ڪري سگهجي ٿو. ان ڪري، خدا ڪائنات ۽ علم ٻنهي کان مٿانهون (ماورا) ٿي ​​سگهي ٿو (يعني انساني ذهن جي پهچ کان ٻاهر). جيتوڻيڪ ماورائيت جي تعريف "حضوريت" (Immanence) جي ابتڙ طور بيان ڪئي ويندي آهي، پر اهي ٻئي لازمي طور تي هڪٻئي جي نفي ڪندڙ يا مڪمل الڳ نه آهن. مختلف مذهبي روايتن جا ڪجهه مذهبي عالم ۽ ماهرِ مابعد الطبيعيات ان ڳالهه جي تصديق ڪن ٿا ته خدا ڪائنات جي اندر به آهي ۽ ان کان ٻاهر به (Panentheism)؛ هو ان ۾ موجود آهي پر ان جو حصو ناهي؛ هو هڪ ئي وقت ان ۾ ڦهليل به آهي ۽ ان کان مٿانهون به آهي.

Modern philosophy

وڌيڪ ڏسو: Transcendental idealism ۽ Transcendental arguments

The Ethics of Baruch Spinoza used the expression "transcendental terms" (in Latin: termini transcendentales) to indicate concepts like Being, Thing, Something, which are too general to be included in the definitions of species, genus and category. In modern philosophy, Immanuel Kant introduced a new term, transcendental, thus instituting a new, third meaning. In his theory of knowledge, this concept is concerned with the condition of possibility of knowledge itself. He also opposed the term transcendental to the term transcendent, the latter meaning "that which goes beyond" (transcends) any possible knowledge of a human being. For him transcendental meant knowledge about our cognitive faculty with regard to how objects are possible a priori. "I call all knowledge transcendental if it is occupied, not with objects, but with the way that we can possibly know objects even before we experience them." Therefore, metaphysics, as a fundamental and universal theory, turns out to be an epistemology. Transcendental philosophy, consequently, is not considered a traditional ontological form of metaphysics.

Kant equated transcendental with that which is "... in respect of the subject's faculty of cognition." Something is transcendental if it plays a role in the way in which the mind "constitutes" objects and makes it possible for us to experience them as objects in the first place. Ordinary knowledge is knowledge of objects; transcendental knowledge is knowledge of how it is possible for us to experience those objects as objects. This is based on Kant's acceptance of David Hume's argument that certain general features of objects (e.g. persistence, causal relationships) cannot be derived from the sense impressions we have of them. Kant argues that the mind must contribute those features and make it possible for us to experience objects as objects. In the central part of his Critique of Pure Reason, the "Transcendental Deduction of the Categories", Kant argues for a deep interconnection between the ability to have consciousness of self and the ability to experience a world of objects. Through a process of synthesis, the mind generates both the structure of objects and its own unity.

A metaphilosophical question discussed by many Kantian scholars is what transcendental reflection is and how transcendental reflection is itself possible. Valentin Balanovskiy shows that this is a special instrument inherent in our consciousness, something by what individuals can distinguish themselves from any other objects of reality. Stephen Palmquist argues that Kant's solution to this problem is an appeal to faith. For Kant, the "transcendent", as opposed to the "transcendental", is that which lies beyond what our faculty of knowledge can legitimately know. Hegel's counter-argument to Kant was that to know a boundary is also to be aware of what it bounds and as such what lies beyond it – in other words, to have already transcended it.

Contemporary philosophy

In phenomenology, the "transcendent" is that which transcends our own consciousness: that which is objective rather than only a phenomenon of consciousness. Jean-Paul Sartre also speaks of transcendence in his works. In Being and Nothingness, Sartre uses transcendence to describe the relation of the self to the object-oriented world, as well as our concrete relations with others. For Sartre, the for-itself is sometimes called a transcendence. Additionally, if the other is viewed strictly as an object, much like any other object, then the other is, for the for-itself, a transcendence-transcended. When the for-itself grasps the other in the other’s world, and grasps the subjectivity that the other has, it is referred to as transcending-transcendence. Thus, Sartre defines relations with others in terms of transcendence.

Contemporary transcendental philosophy is developed by German philosopher Harald Holz with a holistic approach. Holz distanced transcendental philosophy from the convergence of neo-Kantianism. He critically discussed transcendental pragmatism and the relation between transcendental philosophy, neo-empiricism, and so-called postmodernism.

Comparison to religious definitions

Philosophical definitions of transcendence often emphasize the idea of going beyond or exceeding the limits of human experience, and may focus on concepts such as rationality, consciousness, or the nature of reality. These definitions are generally grounded in reason and empirical observation, and seek to provide a framework for understanding the world that is not reliant on religious beliefs or supernatural forces. Religious definitions of transcendence, on the other hand, often emphasize the idea of connecting with something beyond the self or the material world, and may focus on concepts such as God, the soul, or the afterlife. These definitions are often grounded in faith and revelation, and may be seen as offering a way to access a higher or divine reality that cannot be directly observed or explained through reason alone.

While there may be some overlap between these two definitions of transcendence, they are ultimately grounded in different epistemological frameworks and ways of understanding the world. Therefore, the scope derived from the philosophical definition of transcendence could contain the scope derived from the religious definition of transcendence, but not vice versa. This is because the philosophical definition of transcendence is broader and more abstract than the religious definition, which is more specific and focused on a particular faith or belief system.

Colloquial usage

In everyday language, "transcendence" means "going beyond", and "self-transcendence" means going beyond a prior form or state of oneself. Mystical experience is thought of as a particularly advanced state of self-transcendence, in which the sense of a separate self is abandoned. "Self-transcendence" is believed to be psychometrically measurable, and (at least partially) inherited, and has been incorporated as a personality dimension in the Temperament and Character Inventory. The discovery of this is described in the book The God Gene by Dean Hamer, although this has been criticized by commentators such as Carl Zimmer.

Comparison to immanence

The doctrine or theory of immanence holds that the divine encompasses or is manifested in the material world. It is held by some philosophical and metaphysical theories of divine presence. Immanence is usually applied in monotheistic, pantheistic, pandeistic, or panentheistic faiths to suggest that the spiritual world permeates the mundane. It is often contrasted with theories of transcendence, in which the divine is seen to be outside the material world.

پڻ ڏسو

• اسلام ۾ خدا
• ماديت
• مابعد الطبيعات
• empiricism
• humanism
• materialism
• naturalism
• Transcendentalism

ڪتابيات

• Kluger, Jeffrey (17 October 2004). "Is God in Our Genes?". Time. اصل نسخو مان 10 November 2006 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 29 May 2007 تي حاصل ڪيل.
• Razavi, Mehdi Amin (1997). Suhrawardi and the School of Illumination. Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-0412-4.

ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا

• Aldous Huxley on Self-Transcedence - The Epilog of The Devils of Loudun
• Stephen Palmquist, Kant's System of Perspectives (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993). See especially Part Two.