مواد ڏانھن هلو

روس جي تاريخ

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کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
ويليڪي نووگوروڊ ۾ "ملينيم آف روس" يادگار (8 سيپٽمبر 1862ع تي افتتاح ڪيو ويو)

روس جي تاريخ (History of Russia) اوڀر واري سلاف نسلن جي تاريخ سان شروع ٿئي ٿي.[1] [2] روسي تاريخ جي روايتي شروعاتي تاريخ 862ع ۾ اتر ۾ "روس" (Rus') جي رياست جي قيام سان آهي، جنهن تي وارانگين حڪومت ڪئي. [3][4] سال 882ع ۾، نووگوروڊ جو شهزادو اوليگ ڪيف تي قبضو ڪيو، اوڀر سلاف جي اتر ۽ ڏکڻ زمينن کي هڪ اختيار هيٺ متحد ڪيو، 10هين صدي جي آخر تائين گورننس سينٽر کي ڪيف ڏانهن منتقل ڪيو ۽ اتر ۽ ڏکڻ حصن کي هڪ ٻئي کان اهم خودمختياري سان برقرار رکيو. رياست 988ع ۾ بازنطيني سلطنت کان عيسائيت اختيار ڪئي ۽ بازنطيني، سلاف ۽ اسڪينڊينيويا جي ثقافتن جي ترکیب شروع ڪئي، جيڪا ايندڙ هزار سال لاءِ روسي ثقافت جو رخ متعين ڪيو. ڪيوان روس آخرڪار 1237-1240ع ۾ منگول حملي جي ڪري هڪ رياست جي طور تي ٽٽي ويو. 13هين صدي کان پوءِ، ماسڪو هڪ اهم سياسي ۽ ثقافتي قوت طور اڀريو، جيڪو روسي علائقن جي اتحاد کي هلائي رهيو هو.[5] 15هين صدي جي آخر تائين، ماسڪو جي چوڌاري ڪيتريون ئي ننڍيون رياستون ماسڪو جي گرانڊ ڊچي سان متحد ٿي ويون، جنهن آئيوان اعظم جي اڳواڻي ۾ پنهنجي خودمختياري جو مڪمل ڪنٽرول حاصل ڪيو.

آئيوان خونخوار (آئيوان دي ٽيريبل) 1547ع ۾ گرينڊ ڊچي کي روس جي "زارڊم" ۾ تبديل ڪري ڇڏيو. بهرحال، سال 1598ع ۾ ايوان جي پٽ "فيوڊور اول" جي بغير ڪنهن مسئلي جي موت هڪ جانشيني بحران پيدا ڪيو ۽ روس کي انتشار ۽ خانہ جنگي جي دور ۾ وٺي ويو جيڪو "مشڪلاتن جي وقت" جي نالي سان مشهور آهي، جيڪو سال 1613ع ۾ رومانوف خاندان جي پهرين زار جي حيثيت سان مائيڪل رومانوف جي تاجپوشي سان ختم ٿيو. سترهين صدي جي باقي عرصي دوران، روس سائبيريا جي ڳولا ۽ فتح مڪمل ڪئي، صدي جي آخر تائين پئسفڪ سمنڊ تائين زمينن تي دعويٰ ڪئي. ملڪي طور تي، روس کي پنهنجي ڪنٽرول هيٺ مختلف نسلي گروهن جي ڪيترن ئي بغاوتن کي منهن ڏيڻو پيو، جيئن ڪوساڪ اڳواڻ اسٽينڪا رازين پاران مثال ڏنو ويو آهي، جنهن 1670-1671ع ۾ بغاوت جي اڳواڻي ڪئي. سال 1721ع ۾، عظيم اتر جنگ جي نتيجي ۾، زار پيٽر دي گريٽ رياست جو نالو روسي سلطنت رکيو؛ هو سينٽ پيٽرسبرگ کي پنهنجي سلطنت جي نئين گاديءَ جي حيثيت سان قائم ڪرڻ ۽ روس ۾ اولهه يورپي ثقافت کي متعارف ڪرائڻ لاءِ پڻ مشهور آهي. سال 1762ع ۾، روس راڻي ڪيٿرائن عظيم جي قبضي ۾ آيو، جنهن پيٽر عظيم جي مغربي پاليسين کي جاري رکيو ۽ روسي روشن خيالي جي دور جي شروعات ڪئي. ڪيٿرائن جو پوٽو، اليگزينڊر پهرين، فرانسيسي شهنشاهه نيپولين جي حملي کي رد ڪيو، جنهن روس کي عظيم طاقتن مان هڪ جي حيثيت ۾ آندو.

انيسوي صدي دوران هارين جي بغاوتن ۾ شدت آئي، جنهن جو اختتام اليگزينڊر ٻيون پاران 1861ع ۾ روسي جاگير شاهي کي ختم ڪرڻ سان ٿيو. ايندڙ ڏهاڪن ۾، سال 1906-1914ع جي اسٽولپين سڌارن، 1906ع جي آئين ۽ رياستي ڊوما (1906-1917ع) جهڙين سڌارن جي ڪوششن معيشت ۽ سياسي نظام کي کولڻ ۽ آزاد ڪرڻ جي ڪوشش ڪئي، پر شهنشاهه آمرانه حڪمراني کي ڇڏڻ کان انڪار ڪيو ۽ پنهنجي طاقت جي حصيداري جي مزاحمت ڪئي. معاشي خرابي، پهرين عالمي جنگ ۾ روس جي شموليت تي بدانتظامي ۽ حڪومت جي آمرانه نظام سان عدم اطمينان جي ميلاپ 1917ع ۾ روسي انقلاب کي جنم ڏنو. بادشاهت جي خاتمي سان شروعات ۾ لبرلز ۽ اعتدال پسند سوشلسٽن جو اتحاد اقتدار ۾ آيو، پر انهن جي ناڪام پاليسين آڪٽوبر انقلاب جو سبب بڻيون.

سال 1922ع ۾، سوويت روس، يوڪرين ايس ايس آر، بيلو رشيا ۽ قفقاز جمهوريا سان گڏ، سوويت يونين (USSR) جي تخليق جي معاهدي تي دستخط ڪيا، سرڪاري طور تي سڀني چئن جمهورين کي ملائي سوويت يونين کي هڪ واحد رياست طور ٺاهيو. سال 1922ع ۽ 1991ع جي وچ ۾، روس جي تاريخ بنيادي طور تي سوويت يونين جي تاريخ بڻجي وئي. هن عرصي دوران، سوويت يونين 1941ع ۾ نازي جرمني ۽ ان جي ساٿين، جنهن اڳ ۾ سوويت يونين سان غير جارحيت جي معاهدي تي دستخط ڪيا هئا، جي هڪ حيران ڪندڙ حملي مان نڪرڻ کان پوءِ ٻي مهاڀاري جنگ ۾ فاتحن مان هڪ هو. سوويت يونين جي اوڀر يورپ ۾ سيٽلائيٽ رياستن جي نيٽ ورڪ، جيڪي ٻي مهاڀاري جنگ جي آخري مرحلن ۾ ان جي اثر جي دائري ۾ آنديون ويون هيون، ملڪ کي هڪ سپر پاور بڻجڻ ۾ مدد ڪئي جيڪا سرد جنگ ۾ مخالف سپر پاور آمريڪا ۽ ٻين يورپي ملڪن سان مقابلو ڪري رهي هئي.

1980ع جي ڏهاڪي جي وچ تائين، سوويت معاشي ۽ سياسي ڍانچي جي ڪمزورين جي شدت سان، ميخائل گورباچوف وڏين سڌارن تي عمل شروع ڪيو، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ آخرڪار ڪميونسٽ پارٽي ڪمزور ٿي وئي ۽ سوويت يونين ٽٽي ويو، جنهن روس کي ٻيهر پنهنجي حال تي ڇڏي ڏنو ۽ سوويت يونين کان پوءِ جي روس جي تاريخ جي شروعات ڪئي. روسي سوويت فيڊريٽو سوشلسٽ ريپبلڪ (FSFR) پنهنجو نالو روسي فيڊريشن رکيو ۽ سوويت يونين جي بنيادي جانشين رياست بڻجي وئي. [6] روس پنهنجي ايٽمي هٿيارن کي برقرار رکيو پر پنهنجي سپر پاور حيثيت وڃائي ڇڏي. 1990ع جي ڏهاڪي ۾ سوويت دور جي ملڪيت جي مرڪزي منصوبابندي ۽ رياستي ملڪيت کي ختم ڪندي، صدر ولاديمير پوتن جي اڳواڻي ۾ نوان اڳواڻ 2000ع کان پوءِ سياسي ۽ اقتصادي طاقت سنڀالي ۽ هڪ مضبوط پرڏيهي پاليسي ۾ مصروف ٿي ويا. معاشي ترقي سان گڏ، روس ان کان پوءِ عالمي طاقت جي حيثيت سان اهم عالمي حيثيت حاصل ڪري چڪو آهي. روس جي 2014ع ۾ ڪريميا جزيري نما جي الحاق آمريڪا ۽ يورپي يونين پاران لاڳو ڪيل معاشي پابنديون جو سبب بڻيو. روس جي سال 2022ع ۾ يوڪرين تي حملي جي ڪري پابنديون تمام گهڻيون وڌي ويون. پيوٽن جي اڳواڻي ۾، روس ۾ ڪرپشن کي يورپ ۾ بدترين قرار ڏنو ويو آهي ۽ روس جي انساني حقن جي صورتحال کي بين الاقوامي مبصرن پاران وڌيڪ تنقيد جو نشانو بڻايو ويو آهي.

تاريخ کان اڳ جو روس

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ڪرگان مفروضو: جن ۾ ڏاکڻي روس کي هند-يورپي ماڻهن جو اصل وطن (urheimat) سمجهيو ويندو آهي.

روس جي علائقي تي پهرين انساني آبادي هيٺين قديم پٿر جي اولڊوان دور ۾ آئي. لڳ ڀڳ 20 لک سال اڳ، هومو ايريڪٽس جا نمائندا اولهه ايشيا کان اتر قفقاز ڪرميڪ (روسي: Кермек) جي آثار قديمه واري جڳهه ستويانڪا (روسي: стоянка) تامان جزيره نما ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪئي.[7] بوگاٽري/سنيايا بالڪا (روسي: Богатыри/Синяя балка) ۾ "ايلسموٿريم ڪاڪيسڪم" جي کوپڙي ۾، جيڪا 12 کان 15 لک سال اڳ جي آهي، هڪ پٿر جو اوزار مليو.[8] اتر قفقاز جي داغستان آڪوشا علائقي ۾ 15 لک سال پراڻا اولڊوان چقمقي اوزار دريافت ڪيا ويا آهن، جيڪا موجوده روس جي علائقي ۾ ابتدائي انسانن جي موجودگي کي ظاهر ڪن ٿا.[9]

روس ۾ ڊينيسووان جا فوسل تقريباً 1,10,000 سال اڳ جا آهن. [10] ڊينيسووا غار مان مليل هڪ هڏي جي ٽڪري مان ڊي اين اي، جيڪو هڪ عورت جو آهي جيڪا لڳ ڀڳ 90,000 سال اڳ فوت ٿي وئي هئي، اهو ظاهر ڪري ٿو ته هوءَ هڪ نيندرٿل ماءُ ۽ هڪ ڊينيسووان پيءُ جي هائبرڊ هئي.[11] روس پڻ ڪجهه آخري بچيل نيندرٿل جو گهر هو؛ اديگيا ۾ ميزميسڪايا غار ۾ هڪ نيندرٿل ٻار جو جزوي کنڊر صرف 45,000 سالن جي ڪاربن ڊيٽيڊ عمر ڏيکاري ٿو.[12] سال 2008ع ۾، نوووسبرسڪ جي انسٽيٽيوٽ آف آرڪيالاجي اينڊ ايٿنولوجي جي روسي آثار قديمه جا ماهر، سائبيريا جي التائي جبلن ۾ ڊينيسووا غار جي سائيٽ تي ڪم ڪندي، هڪ نوجوان هومينين جي پنجين آڱر مان 40,000 سال پراڻي ننڍڙي هڏي جو ٽڪرو دريافت ڪيو، جيڪو ڊي اين اي تجزيي مان ظاهر ٿيو ته انسان جي هڪ اڳ ۾ اڻڄاتل نسل هئي، جنهن کي ڊينيسووا هومينين جو نالو ڏنو ويو هو.[13]

روسي علائقي جي وڏي پکيڙ تي هوموسيپيئنز جو پهريون نشان، مرڪزي سائبيريا (اُست-اِشم انسان) ۾ 45,000 سال اڳ جو آهي. يورپ ۾ ڪٿي به جسماني طور تي جديد انسانن جي موجودگي جي ڪجهه ابتدائي ثبوتن جي دريافت 2007ع ۾ روس ۾ ڊان ندي جي ويجهو ڪوسٽنڪي آثار قديمه واري هنڌ (گهٽ ۾ گهٽ 40,000 سال اڳ) ۽ سانگير (34,600 سال اڳ) مان رپورٽ ڪيا ويا آهن. انسان 40,000 سال اڳ آرڪٽڪ روس (مامونٽووايا ڪريا) تائين پهچي ويا هئا.

قبل از تاريخ دور ۾، ڏکڻ روس جا وسيع ميدان، خانه بدوش چرواهن جي قبيلن جا گهر هئا. ڪلاسيڪل قديم زماني ۾، پونٽڪ ميدان "سائيٿيا" (Scythia) جي نالي سان مشهور هو.[14] انهن ڊگهي عرصي کان هلندڙ ميدان ثقافتن جا باقيات 20هين صدي جي دوران، ايپاتوو، سنتاشتا، آرڪيم ۽ پزيرڪ جهڙن هنڌن تي دريافت ٿيا.[15][16][17][18]

قديم ۽ وچين دور

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ڏکڻ روس جي تامان جزيره نما (يوبيلينو) مان سنگ مرمر تي بوسپورن بادشاهت، چوٿين صدي قبل مسيح جو ٽيون چوٿون حصو، جا ٻن يوناني سپاهين جا مجسما، پشڪن ميوزيم، ماسڪو

8هين صدي قبل مسيح جي پوئين حصي ۾، يوناني واپارين ڪلاسيڪل تهذيب کي تانائيس ۽ فناگوريا ۾ واپاري ايمپوريم ۾ آندا.[19] هيروڊوٽس پاران "گيلونس" کي هڪ وڏي (يورپ جي سڀ کان وڏي) پٿر ۽ ڪاٺ سان ٺهيل شهر (Grad) طور بيان ڪيو هو. هيلوني ۽ بوڊيني 500 ق.م جي آس پاس آباد هئا. 513 ق.م ۾، هخامنشي سلطنت جو بادشاهه، داريوس اول، ڪاري سمنڊ جي چوڌاري سيٿيا (جديد يوڪرين) ۾ هڪ فوجي مهم شروع ڪئي ۽ آخرڪار تانائيس ندي (هاڻي ڊان ندي جي نالي سان مشهور آهي) تائين پهتو.

يوناني، جيڪا گهڻو ڪري ميليٽس جي شهري رياست سان هئا، جديد دور جي ڪريميا ۽ آزوف سمنڊ جي وڏي حصي تي ستين ۽ ڇهين صدي قبل مسيح دوران نوآباديون ٺاهيا، جيڪيون آخرڪار 480 ق.م. تائين بوسپورن بادشاهت ۾ ضم ٿي ويون، جيڪي 107 ق.م ۾ پونٽس جي وڏي بادشاهت ۾ شامل ٿي وئي. بادشاهت آخرڪار رومن ريپبلڪ پاران فتح ڪئي وئي ۽ بوسپورن بادشاهت رومن سلطنت جي هڪ باجگذار رياست بڻجي وئي. تقريبن ٻي صدي عيسوي ۾، گوٿ (Goth) ڪاري سمنڊ ڏانهن لڏپلاڻ ڪيا ۽ ٽئين ۽ چوٿين صدي عيسوي ۾، جيستائين ان تي "هن قوم" (Huns) قبضو نه ڪيو، اويم جي هڪ نيم افسانوي گوٿڪ بادشاهت ڏکڻ روس ۾ موجود هئي. ٽئين ۽ ڇهين صدي عيسوي جي وچ ۾، بوسپورن بادشاهت پڻ خانہ بدوشن جي جنگي قبيلن، جيڪا اڪثر يورپ ڏانهن منتقل ٿيندا هئا، جيئن هن (Hun) ۽ ترڪي آوار (Avar)، جي اڳواڻي ۾ حملن جي مسلسل لهرن کان مغلوب ٿي وئي.[20]

ٻئي صدي قبل مسيح ۾، ڪاما ۽ ارتش دريائن جي وچ ۾ علائقا هڪ پروٽو-يورالڪ ڳالهائيندڙ آبادي جو گهر هئا، جنهن جا ڏکڻ کان پروٽو-هند-يورپي ڳالهائيندڙن سان رابطا هئا. ٻيلي جي آبادي ٽرانس-يوراليا جي جديد يوگرين رهاڪن جي اڳواڻ آهي. ٻيا محقق چون ٿا ته "خانٽي-مانسي ماڻهو" ڏکڻ يورال ميدان ۾ پيدا ٿيا هئا ۽ 500 عيسوي جي لڳ ڀڳ اتر طرف پنهنجي موجوده جڳهه تي منتقل ٿيا.

خزر، ترڪ ماڻهن جي هڪ شاخ، 8هين صدي تائين ڪيسپين ۽ ڪاري سمنڊ جي وچ ۾ هيٺين وولگا جي طاس جي ميدانن تي حڪومت ڪئي.[21] خزر بالٽڪ ۽ مسلم عباسي سلطنت جي مرڪز، بغداد جي وچ ۾ مکيه تجارتي ڪڙي هئا. [22] اها اوڀرين رومن سلطنت جا اهم اتحادي هئا[23] ۽ عباسي خلافت جي خلاف ڪامياب جنگين جو هڪ سلسلو وڙهيا.[24][25]

ابتدائي تاريخ

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ماسڪو جو گرينڊ ڊچي

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زار شاهي

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روسي سلطنت

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سوويت يونين

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سوويت يونين (1922-1991ع

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اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو سوويت يونين

سوويت يونين جو قيام

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لينن، ٽراٽسڪي ۽ ڪيمينيف آڪٽوبر انقلاب جي ٻي سالگرهه ملهائي رهيا آهن.
لينن ۽ اسٽالن گورڪي ۾ (1922ع)


ڊسمبر 1922ع ۾ روسي ڪميونسٽ پارٽي جي اڳواڻن پاران قائم ڪيل، سوويت يونين بريسٽ-ليٽووسڪ جي معاهدي کان اڳ جي روس سان تقريبن هڪجهڙائي رکندو هيو.[26] ان وقت، سوويت يونين ۾ چار آئيني جمهوريتون؛ روسي سوويت فيڊرل سوشلسٽ ريپبلڪ (SFSR)، يوڪرين سوويت سوشلسٽ ريپبلڪ (SSR)، بيلاروس سوويت سوشلسٽ ريپبلڪ (SSR) ۽ ٽرانس قفقاز سوويت فيڊرل سوشلسٽ ريپبلڪ (SFSR) شامل هيون.[27]

سال 1924ع ۾، منظور ڪيل آئين ۾، هر آئيني جمهوريه ۾ سوويت جي هڪ اهرام تي ٻڌل قائم ڪيل حڪومت جو هڪ وفاقي نظام، سوويت جي آل يونين ڪانگريس ۾ ختم ٿيو. بهرحال، بظاهر ڪانگريس هڪ خودمختيار طاقت استعمال ڪندڙ، هي ادارو اصل ۾ ڪميونسٽ پارٽي جي طرفان سنڀاليو ويو، جن کي موڙ ۾ ماسڪو کان پولٽ بيورو پاران ڪنٽرول ڪيو ويو.

جنگي ڪميونزم ۽ نئين معاشي پاليسي

[سنواريو]

سال 1917ع ۾ بالشويڪ انقلاب جي مضبوط ٿيڻ کان وٺي سال 1921ع تائين وارو دور، جيڪو "جنگي ڪميونزم جي دور" جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو،[28] ۾ زمينون، صنعتون ۽ ننڍا ڪاروبار قوميايا ويا ۽ پئسي جي معيشت کي محدود ڪيو ويو، پڻ جلد ئي هن جي مضبوط مخالفت پيدا ٿي. جئين ته هاري پنهنجي شين لاءِ نقد ادائيگيون چاهيندا هئا ۽ ان جي گهرو ويڙهه جي پاليسين جي حصي طور، پنهنجي اضافي اناج کي حڪومت جي حوالي ڪرڻ تي ناراض هئا، حڪومت کي هارين جي مخالفت سان منهن ڏيڻو پيو. لينن جنگي ڪميونزم کان هڪ اسٽريٽجڪ پوئتي هٽڻ شروع ڪيو، جن کي نئين اقتصادي پاليسي (NEP) جي نالي سان سڃاتو وڃي ٿو. [29] هارين کي اناج جي ٿوڪ ليوي کان آزاد ڪيو ويو ۽ انهن جي اضافي پيداوار کي کليل مارڪيٽ ۾ وڪڻڻ جي اجازت ڏني وئي، خانگي پرچون واپار جي اجازت سان واپار کي متحرڪ ڪيو ويو، پر رياست بينڪنگ، ٽرانسپورٽ، ڳري صنعت ۽ عوامي استعمال جي ذميوار رهي.

جيتوڻيڪ ڪميونسٽن ۾ کاٻي ڌر جي قيادت امير هارين يا ڪولڪن (Kulaks) تي تنقيد ڪئي، جيڪي NEP مان فائدو حاصل ڪندا هئا، پروگرام انتهائي فائديمند ثابت ٿيو ۽ معيشت بحال ٿي.[30] سال 1924ع جي شروعات ۾ لينن جي موت کان پوءِ NEP کي پارٽي اندر وڌندڙ مخالفت جو منهن ڏسڻو پيو.[31]

روسي سماج ۾ تبديليون

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو سوويت يونين ۾ ثقافتي انقلاب
فائل:8marta.jpg
Soviet poster from 1932 symbolizing the reform of "old ways of life", dedicated to liberation of women from traditional roles


As the Russian Empire included during this period not only the region of Russia, but also today's territories of Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Finland, Moldavia and the Caucasian and Central Asian countries, it is possible to examine the firm formation process in all those regions. One of the main determinants of firm creation for given regions of Russian Empire might be urban demand of goods and supply of industrial and organizational skill.[32]

While the Russian economy was being transformed, the social life of the people underwent equally drastic changes. The Family Code of 1918 granted women equal status to men, and permitted a couple to take either the husband or wife's name.[33] Divorce no longer required court procedure,[34] and to make women completely free of the responsibilities of childbearing, abortion was made legal as early as 1920.[35] As a side effect, the emancipation of women increased the labor market. Girls were encouraged to secure an education and pursue a career. Communal nurseries were set up for child care, and efforts were made to shift the center of people's social life from the home to educational and recreational groups, the soviet clubs.

The Soviet government pursued a policy of eliminating illiteracy (Likbez). After industrialization, massive urbanization began. In the field of national policy in the 1920s, the Korenizatsiya was carried out. However, from the mid-30s, the Stalinist government returned to the tsarist policy of Russification of the outskirts. In particular, the languages of all the nations of the USSR were transcribed into the Cyrillic alphabet in the process known as Cyrillization.

Industrialization and collectivization

[سنواريو]

The years from 1929 to 1939 comprised a tumultuous decade in Soviet history—a period of massive industrialization and internal struggles as Joseph Stalin established near total control over Soviet society, wielding virtually unrestrained power. Following Lenin's death Stalin wrestled to gain control of the Soviet Union with rival factions in the Politburo, especially Leon Trotsky's. By 1928, with the Trotskyists either exiled or rendered powerless, Stalin was ready to put a radical programme of industrialisation into action.[36]

The Soviet famine of 1932–1933, with areas where the effects of famine were most severe shaded

In 1929, Stalin proposed the first five-year plan.[37] Abolishing the NEP, it was the first of a number of plans aimed at swift accumulation of capital resources through the buildup of heavy industry, the collectivization of agriculture, and the restricted manufacture of consumer goods.[37] For the first time in history a government controlled all economic activity. The rapid growth of production capacity and the volume of production of heavy industry was of great importance for ensuring economic independence from western countries and strengthening the country's defense capability. At this time, the Soviet Union made the transition from an agrarian country to an industrial one.

As a part of the plan, the government took control of agriculture through the state and collective farms (kolkhozes).[38] By a decree of February 1930, about one million individual peasants (kulaks) were forced off their land. Many peasants strongly opposed regimentation by the state, often slaughtering their herds when faced with the loss of their land. In some sections they revolted, and countless peasants deemed "kulaks" by the authorities were executed.[39] The combination of bad weather, deficiencies of the hastily established collective farms, and massive confiscation of grain precipitated a serious famine,[38] and several million peasants died of starvation, mostly in Ukraine, Kazakhstan and parts of southwestern Russia.[38] The deteriorating conditions in the countryside drove millions of desperate peasants to the rapidly growing cities, fueling industrialization, and vastly increasing Russia's urban population.

Stalinist repression

[سنواريو]
The first five Marshals of the Soviet Union in November 1935, clockwise from top left: Semyon Budyonny, Vasily Blyukher, Alexander Ilyich Yegorov, Kliment Voroshilov, and Mikhail Tukhachevsky. Only Budyonny and Voroshilov would survive Stalin's Great Purge.

The NKVD gathered in tens of thousands of Soviet citizens to face arrest, deportation, or execution. Of the six original members of the 1920 Politburo who survived Lenin, all were purged by Stalin. Old Bolsheviks who had been loyal comrades of Lenin, high officers in the Red Army, and directors of industry were liquidated in the Great Purges.[40] Purges in other Soviet republics also helped centralize control in the USSR.

Stalin destroyed the opposition in the party consisting of the old Bolsheviks during the Moscow trials. The NKVD under the leadership of Stalin's commissar Nikolai Yezhov carried out a series of massive repressive operations against the kulaks and various national minorities in the USSR. During the Great Purges of 1937–38, about 700,000 people were executed.

Penalties were introduced, and many citizens were prosecuted for fictitious crimes of sabotage and espionage. The labor provided by convicts working in the labor camps of the Gulag system became an important component of the industrialization effort, especially in Siberia.[41][42] An estimated 18 million people passed through the Gulag system, and perhaps another 15 million had experience of some other form of forced labor.[43][44]

After the partition of Poland in 1939, the NKVD executed 20,000 captured Polish officers in the Katyn massacre. In the late 30s - first half of the 40s, the Stalinist government carried out massive deportations of various nationalities. A number of ethnic groups were deported from their settlement to Central Asia.

Soviet Union on the international stage

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو Foreign relations of the Soviet Union ۽ Soviet imperialism
Soviet Foreign Minister Maxim Litvinov with Poland's Foreign Minister Józef Beck in February 1934

The Soviet Union viewed the 1933 accession of fervently anti-Communist Hitler to power in Germany with alarm, especially since Hitler proclaimed the Drang nach Osten as one of the major objectives in his vision of the German strategy of Lebensraum.[45][غير بنيادي ذريعو جي ضرورت آهي] The Soviets supported the republicans of Spain who struggled against fascist German and Italian troops in the Spanish Civil War.[46][47] In 1938–1939, the Soviet Union successfully fought against Imperial Japan in the Soviet–Japanese border conflicts in the Russian Far East, which led to Soviet-Japanese neutrality and the tense border peace that lasted until August 1945.[48][49]

In 1938, Germany annexed Austria and, together with major Western European powers, signed the Munich Agreement following which Germany, Hungary and Poland divided parts of Czechoslovakia between themselves. German plans for further eastward expansion, as well as the lack of resolve from Western powers to oppose it, became more apparent. Despite the Soviet Union strongly opposing the Munich deal and repeatedly reaffirming its readiness to militarily back commitments given earlier to Czechoslovakia, the Western Betrayal led to the end of Czechoslovakia and further increased fears in the Soviet Union of a coming German attack. This led the Soviet Union to rush the modernization of its military industry and to carry out its own diplomatic maneuvers. In 1939, the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact: a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany dividing Eastern Europe into two separate spheres of influence.[50] Following the pact, the USSR normalized relations with Nazi Germany and resumed Soviet–German trade.[51]

World War II

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو World War II ۽ Eastern Front (World War II)
German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 and 1942

On 17 September 1939, the Red Army invaded eastern Poland, stating as justification the "need to protect Ukrainians and Belarusians" there, after the "cessation of existence" of the Polish state.[52][53] As a result, the Belarusian and Ukrainian Soviet republics' western borders were moved westward, and the new Soviet western border was drawn close to the original Curzon line. In the meantime negotiations with Finland over a Soviet-proposed land swap that would redraw the Soviet-Finnish border further away from Leningrad failed, and in December 1939 the USSR invaded Finland, beginning a campaign known as the Winter War (1939–1940), with the goal of annexing Finland into the Soviet Union.[54][55] The war took a heavy death toll on the Red Army and the Soviets failed to conquer Finland, but forced Finland to sign the Moscow Peace Treaty and cede the Karelian Isthmus and Ladoga Karelia.[56][57] In summer 1940 the USSR issued an ultimatum to Romania forcing it to cede the territories of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. At the same time, the Soviet Union also occupied the three formerly independent Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania).[58][59][60]

Soviet soldiers during the Battle of Stalingrad, the largest and bloodiest battle in the history of warfare, the turning point on the Eastern Front and in the entire WWII

The peace with Germany was tense, as both sides were preparing for the military conflict,[61][62] and abruptly ended when the Axis forces led by Germany swept across the Soviet border on 22 June 1941. By the autumn the German army had seized Ukraine, laid a siege of Leningrad, and threatened to capture the capital, Moscow, itself.[63][64][65] Despite the fact that in December 1941 the Red Army threw off the German forces from Moscow in a successful counterattack, the Germans retained the strategic initiative for approximately another year and held a deep offensive in the south-eastern direction, reaching the Volga and the Caucasus. However, two major German defeats in Stalingrad and Kursk proved decisive and reversed the course of the entire World War as the Germans never regained the strength to sustain their offensive operations and the Soviet Union recaptured the initiative for the rest of the conflict.[66] By the end of 1943, the Red Army had broken through the German siege of Leningrad and liberated much of Ukraine, much of Western Russia and moved into Belarus.[67] During the 1944 campaign, the Red Army defeated German forces in a series of offensive campaigns known as Stalin's ten blows. By the end of 1944, the front had moved beyond the 1939 Soviet frontiers into eastern Europe. Soviet forces drove into eastern Germany, capturing Berlin in May 1945.[68] The war with Germany thus ended triumphantly for the Soviet Union.

As agreed at the Yalta Conference, three months after the Victory Day in Europe the USSR launched the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, defeating the Japanese troops in neighboring Manchuria, the last Soviet battle of World War II.[69]

Raising a Flag over the Reichstag

Although the Soviet Union was victorious in World War II, the war resulted in around 26–27 million Soviet deaths (estimates vary)[70] and had devastated the Soviet economy in the struggle. Some 70,000 settlements were destroyed.[71] The occupied territories suffered from the ravages of German occupation and deportations of slave labor by Germany.[72] Thirteen million Soviet citizens became victims of the repressive policies of Germany and its allies in occupied territories, where people died because of mass murders, famine, absence of medical aid and slave labor.[73][74][75][76] The Holocaust, carried out by German Einsatzgruppen along with local collaborators, resulted in almost complete annihilation of the Jewish population over the entire territory temporarily occupied by Germany and its allies.[77][78][79][80] During the occupation, the Leningrad region lost around a quarter of its population,[76] Soviet Belarus lost from a quarter to a third of its population, and 3.6 million Soviet prisoners of war (of 5.5 million) died in German camps.[81][82][83]

Cold War

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Cold War
US Army tanks face off against Soviet armor at Checkpoint Charlie, Berlin, October 1961.

Collaboration among the major Allies had won the war and was supposed to serve as the basis for postwar reconstruction and security. USSR became one of the founders of the UN and a permanent member of the UN Security Council. However, the conflict between Soviet and U.S. national interests, known as the Cold War, came to dominate the international stage.

The Cold War emerged from a conflict between Stalin and U.S. President Harry Truman over the future of Eastern Europe during the Potsdam Conference in the summer of 1945.[84] Stalin's goal was to establish a buffer zone of states between Germany and the Soviet Union.[85] Truman charged that Stalin had betrayed the Yalta agreement.[86] With Eastern Europe under Red Army occupation, Stalin was also biding his time, as his own atomic bomb project was steadily and secretly progressing.[87][88]

In April 1949 the United States sponsored the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a mutual defense pact. The Soviet Union established an Eastern counterpart to NATO in 1955, dubbed the Warsaw Pact.[89][90][91] The division of Europe into Western and Soviet blocks later took on a more global character, especially after 1949, when the U.S. nuclear monopoly ended with the testing of a Soviet bomb and the Communist takeover in China.

The foremost objectives of Soviet foreign policy were the maintenance and enhancement of national security and the maintenance of hegemony over Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union maintained its dominance over the Warsaw Pact through crushing the Hungarian Revolution of 1956,[92] suppressing the Prague Spring in Czechoslovakia in 1968, and supporting the suppression of the Solidarity movement in Poland in the early 1980s. The Soviet Union opposed the United States in a number of proxy conflicts all over the world, including the Korean War and Vietnam War.

Nikita Khrushchev and John F. Kennedy, Vienna, June 1961

As the Soviet Union continued to maintain tight control over its sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, the Cold War gave way to Détente and a more complicated pattern of international relations in the 1970s. The nuclear race continued, the number of nuclear weapons in the hands of the USSR and the United States reached a menacing scale, giving them the ability to destroy the planet multiple times. Less powerful countries had more room to assert their independence, and the two superpowers were partially able to recognize their common interest in trying to check the further spread and proliferation of nuclear weapons in treaties such as SALT I, SALT II, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.

U.S.–Soviet relations deteriorated following the beginning of the nine-year Soviet–Afghan War in 1979 and the 1980 election of Ronald Reagan, a staunch anti-communist, but improved as the communist bloc started to unravel in the late 1980s. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia lost the superpower status that it had won in the Second World War.

De-Stalinization and the era of stagnation

[سنواريو]

Nikita Khrushchev solidified his position in a speech before the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party in 1956 detailing Stalin's atrocities.[93]

President Jimmy Carter and Soviet General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev sign the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II) treaty, 18 June 1979.

In 1964, Khrushchev was impeached by the Communist Party's Central Committee, charging him with a host of errors that included Soviet setbacks such as the Cuban Missile Crisis.[93] After a period of collective leadership led by Leonid Brezhnev, Alexei Kosygin and Nikolai Podgorny, Brezhnev took Khrushchev's place as Soviet leader.[94] Brezhnev emphasized heavy industry,[95] instituted the Soviet economic reform of 1965,[96] and also attempted to ease relationships with the United States.[95] Soviet science and industry peaked in the Khrushchev and Brezhnev years. The world's first nuclear power plant was established in 1954 in Obninsk, and the Baikal Amur Mainline was built. In the 1950s the USSR became a leading producer and exporter of petroleum and natural gas.[97] In 1980 Moscow hosted the Summer Olympic Games.

While all modernized economies were rapidly moving to computerization after 1965, the USSR fell behind. Moscow's decision to copy the IBM 360 of 1965 proved a decisive mistake for it locked scientists into an antiquated system they were unable to improve. They had enormous difficulties in manufacturing the necessary chips reliably and in quantity, in programming workable and efficient programs, in coordinating entirely separate operations, and in providing support to computer users.[98][99]

One of the greatest strengths of Soviet economy was its vast supplies of oil and gas; world oil prices quadrupled in 1973–1974, and rose again in 1979–1981, making the energy sector the chief driver of the Soviet economy, and was used to cover multiple weaknesses. At one point, Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin told the head of oil and gas production, "things are bad with bread. Give me 3 million tons [of oil] over the plan."[100] Former prime minister Yegor Gaidar, an economist looking back three decades, in 2007 wrote:

The hard currency from oil exports stopped the growing food supply crisis, increased the import of equipment and consumer goods, ensured a financial base for the arms race and the achievement of nuclear parity with the United States, and permitted the realization of such risky foreign-policy actions as the war in Afghanistan.[101]

Soviet space program

[سنواريو]
Yuri Gagarin, first human to travel into space.

The Soviet space program, founded by Sergey Korolev, was especially successful. On 4 October 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first satellite, Sputnik.[102] On 12 April 1961, Yuri Gagarin became the first human to travel into space in the Soviet spaceship Vostok 1.[103] Other achievements of Russian space program include: the first photo of the far side of the Moon; exploration of Venus; the first spacewalk by Alexei Leonov; first female spaceflight by Valentina Tereshkova. In 1970 and 1973, the world's first planetary rovers were sent to the moon: Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2. More recently, the Soviet Union produced the world's first space station, Salyut, which in 1986 was replaced by Mir, the first consistently inhabited long-term space station, that served from 1986 to 2001.

Perestroika and Glasnost

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991), Perestroika ۽ Glasnost

Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. After the rapid succession of Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko, Mikhail Gorbachev implemented perestroika in an attempt to modernize Soviet communism, and made significant changes in the party leadership.[104][105] However, Gorbachev's social reforms led to unintended consequences. His policy of glasnost facilitated public access to information after decades of government repression, and social problems received wider public attention, undermining the Communist Party's authority. Glasnost allowed ethnic and nationalist disaffection to reach the surface,[106] and many constituent republics, especially the Baltic republics, Georgian SSR and Moldavian SSR, sought greater autonomy, which Moscow was unwilling to provide. In the revolutions of 1989 the USSR lost its allies in Eastern Europe. Gorbachev's attempts at economic reform were not sufficient, and the Soviet government left intact most of the fundamental elements of communist economy. Suffering from low pricing of petroleum and natural gas, the ongoing war in Afghanistan, and outdated industry and pervasive corruption, the Soviet planned economy proved to be ineffective, and by 1990 the Soviet government had lost control over economic conditions. Due to price control, there were shortages of almost all products. Control over the constituent republics was also relaxed, and they began to assert their national sovereignty.

Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev in Geneva, November 1985.

The tension between Soviet Union and Russian SFSR authorities came to be personified in the power struggle between Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin.[107] Squeezed out of Union politics by Gorbachev in 1987, Yeltsin, who represented himself as a committed democrat, presented a significant opposition to Gorbachev's authority.[108] In a remarkable reversal of fortunes, he gained election as chairman of the Russian republic's new Supreme Soviet in May 1990.[109]

Priority over Soviet Union laws and negotiations on a new Treaty

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو Parade of sovereignties, War of Laws ۽ New Union Treaty

The following month, Yeltsin secured legislation giving Russian laws priority over Soviet laws. Article 5 of the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic establishes the full authority of the RSFSR, with the exception of those which it voluntarily transfers to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, as well as the supremacy of the Constitution of the RSFSR and the laws of the RSFSR over the entire territory of the RSFSR. Acts of the Union of SSR which conflict with the sovereign rights of the RSFSR shall be suspended by the Republic on its territory. And also Yeltsin withholding two-thirds of the budget.[حوالو گهربل] In the first Russian presidential election in 1991 Yeltsin became president of the Russian SFSR. At last Gorbachev attempted to restructure the Soviet Union into a less centralized state. However, on 19 August 1991, a coup against Gorbachev was attempted. The coup faced wide popular opposition and collapsed in three days, but disintegration of the Union became imminent. The Russian government took over most of the Soviet Union government institutions on its territory. Because of the dominant position of Russians in the Soviet Union, most gave little thought to any distinction between Russia and the Soviet Union before the late 1980s. In the Soviet Union, only Russian SFSR lacked its own republic-level Communist Party branch, trade union councils, Academy of Sciences, and the like.[110]

Soviet coup attempt, the Transition Period and the end of the Soviet Union

[سنواريو]

The Communist Party of the Soviet Union was banned in Russia in 1991, although no lustration has ever taken place, and many of its members became top Russian officials. However, as the Soviet government was still opposed to immediate market reforms, the economic situation continued to deteriorate.

On 24 September, RSFSR State Secretary Gennady Burbulis arrived to Boris Yeltsin, who was on vacation at the Black Sea coast. He brought a document “Russia's Strategy for the Transition Period”, which later received the unofficial name “Burbulis Memorandum”. The “memorandum” contained an analysis of the situation in the country, proposals on what should be done without delay, prepared by Yegor Gaidar's group. The document concluded that Russia should take the course of economic independence with a “soft”, “temporary” political alliance with other republics, i.e. to create not a declared, but a truly independent state of Russia.[111] 30 years later, Burbulis recalled that the Burbulis Memorandum was the reform concept of Gaidar's group: There was not any secrecy. First Yegor Gaidar made a report at the State Council of the RSFSR, and then Burbulis spoke at the State Council and said he would make a report for Yeltsin.[112]

As the Kommersant newspaper wrote on 7 October 1991, a series of conflicts occurred in the RSFSR government during preparations for the signing of the Treaty on the Economic Community. In his speech to members of the Russian parliament, RSFSR State Secretary Gennady Burbulis declared Russia's special role as the legal successor to the Soviet Union. Accordingly, the ways of drafting agreements with the republics should be determined by the Russian leadership. Instead of the planned order, he suggested signing a political agreement first, followed by an economic one. The newspaper suggested that Burbulis' goal was to persuade Yeltsin not to sign the agreement as it stands at the time. Yegor Gaidar, Alexander Shokhin and Konstantin Kagalovsky were named as the developers of the statement made by Burbulis. In the same time, a group of "isolationist patriots" consisting of Mikhail Maley, Nikolai Fedorov, Alexander Shokhin, Igor Lazarev and Mikhail Poltoranin criticized Ivan Silaev and Yevgeny Saburov for wanting to preserve the Soviet Union.[113]

Leaders of the Soviet Republics sign the Belovezh Accords, effectively ending the existence of the Soviet Union and establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States, 8 December 1991

The Treaty on Economic Community was signed in Moscow on 18 October 1991 in a single copy in the Russian language by the competent representatives, including Boris Yeltsin.[114][115]

By December 1991, the shortages had resulted in the introduction of food rationing in Moscow and Saint Petersburg for the first time since World War II. Russia received humanitarian food aid from abroad. After the Belavezha Accords, the Supreme Soviet of Russia withdrew Russia from the Soviet Union on 12 December. The Soviet Union officially ended on 25 December 1991,[116] and the Russian Federation (formerly the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic)[117] took power on 26 December.[116] The Russian government lifted price control on 2 January 1992. Prices rose dramatically, but shortages disappeared.

رشيئن فيڊريشن (1991ع کان اڃ تائين

[سنواريو]

آزاد ملڪ ۽ دولت مشترڪه

[سنواريو]
سوويت يونين جي ٽٽڻ ۽ سرد جنگ جي خاتمي کان پوءِ رياستي حدن ۾ تبديليون

سوويت يونين کان پوءِ جا ملڪ،[118] اڳوڻي سوويت يونين جي ورثي، ايٽمي هٿيار،[119] قرض ۽ اثاثن [120] ۽ عام معاهدن کي بين الاقوامي تنظيمن ۾ گهڻ طرفي ۽ ٻطرفي طور تي خاص حيثيت سان حل ڪرڻ لاءِ معاهدن جي هڪ سلسلي تي دستخط ڪيا.[121]

Boris Yeltsin (left), first president of Russian Federation, and US President Bill Clinton in 1999

Economic reforms also consolidated a semi-criminal oligarchy with roots in the old Soviet system. Advised by Western governments, the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund, Russia embarked on the largest and fastest privatization ever to reform the fully nationalized Soviet economy. By mid-decade, retail, trade, services, and small industry was in private hands. Most big enterprises were acquired by their old managers, engendering a new rich (Russian tycoons) in league with criminal mafias or Western investors.[122] Corporate raiders such as Andrei Volgin engaged in hostile takeovers of corrupt corporations by the mid-1990s.

By the mid-1990s Russia had a system of multiparty electoral politics.[123] But it was harder to establish a representative government because of the struggle between president and parliament and the anarchic party system.

Meanwhile, the central government had lost control of the localities, bureaucracy, and economic fiefdoms, and tax revenues had collapsed. Still in a deep depression, Russia's economy was hit further by the financial crash of 1998. At the end of 1999, Yeltsin made a surprise announcement of his resignation, leaving the government in the hands of the Prime Minister Vladimir Putin.[124]

Era of Putin

[سنواريو]
2011–2013 Russian protests against the conduct of Russia's parliamentary elections
Vladimir Putin and pro-Russian Crimea leaders sign the Treaty on Accession of the Republic of Crimea to Russia in 2014.

In 2000, the new acting president won the presidential election on 26 March and won in a landslide four years later.[125] The Second Chechen war ended with the victory of Russia. After the 11 September terrorist attacks, there was a rapprochement between Russia and the United States. Putin created a system of guided democracy in Russia by subjugating parliament, suppressing independent media and placing major oil and gas companies under state control.

International observers were alarmed by moves in late 2004 to further tighten the presidency's control over parliament, civil society, and regional officeholders.[126] In 2008, Dmitri Medvedev, Putin's head of staff, was elected president. In 2012, Putin became president again, prompting massive protests in Moscow.

Russia's long-term problems include a shrinking workforce, rampant corruption, and underinvestment in infrastructure.[127] Nevertheless, reversion to a socialist command economy seemed almost impossible.[128] The economic problems are aggravated by massive capital outflows, as well as extremely difficult conditions for doing business, due to pressure from the security forces Siloviki and government agencies.

Due to high oil prices, from 2000 to 2008, Russia's GDP at PPP doubled.[129] Although high oil prices and a relatively cheap ruble initially drove this growth, since 2003 consumer demand and, more recently, investment have played a significant role.[127] Russia is well ahead of most other resource-rich countries in its economic development, with a long tradition of education, science, and industry.[130] Russia hosted the 2014 Winter Olympic Games in Sochi.[131]

A street in Kyiv following Russian missile strikes on 10 October 2022

In 2014, following a controversial referendum, in which separation was favored by a large majority of voters according to official results,[132] the Russian leadership announced the accession of Crimea into the Russian Federation,[133] thus starting the Russo-Ukrainian War. Following Russia's annexation of Crimea and alleged Russian interference in the war in eastern Ukraine, international sanctions were imposed on Russia.[134]

On 4 December 2011, elections to the State Duma were held, as a result of which United Russia won for the third time in a row. The official voting results caused significant protests in the country; a number of political scientists and journalists noted various falsifications on election day.[135] In 2012, according to another pre-election agreement, a "castling" took place;[136] Putin again became president and Dmitry Medvedev took over as chairman of the government, after which the protests acquired an anti-Putin orientation, but soon began to decline.[137]

Since 2015, Russia has been conducting military intervention in Syria in support of the Bashar al-Assad regime.[138]

BRICS representatives at the 16th BRICS summit in Kazan, Russia, 23 October 2024

In 2018, Putin was re-elected for a fourth presidential term.[139]

In 2022, Russia launched the invasion of Ukraine,[140] which was denounced by NATO and the European Union. They aided Ukraine and imposed massive International sanctions during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[141] A leading banker in Moscow said the damage might take a decade to recover, as half of its international trade has been lost.[142] Despite international opposition, Russia officially annexed the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic, along with most of the Kherson and Zaporizhzhia Oblasts on 30 September.[143] The United Nations have reported that Russia has committed war crimes during the invasion.[144][145]

In March 2023, Russia adopted a Eurasianist, anti-Western foreign policy strategy detailed in a document approved by Putin. The document defined Russia as a "unique country-civilization and a vast Eurasian and Euro-Pacific power" that seeks to create a "Greater Eurasian Partnership" by pursuing close relations with China, India, countries of the Islamic World and rest of the Global South (Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa).[146][147] On 23 June 2023, the Wagner Group, a Russian paramilitary organization led by Yevgeny Prigozhin, rebelled against the government.[148] As of August 2023, the total number of Russian and Ukrainian soldiers killed or wounded during the Russian invasion of Ukraine was nearly 500,000.[149]

پڻ ڏسو

[سنواريو]

حوالا

[سنواريو]
  1. ↑ "History of Russia – Slavs in Russia: from 1500 BC". Historyworld.net. محفوظ ڪيل مان اصل نسخي کان 9 March 2006 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 14 July 2016 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  2. ↑ Hosking, Geoffrey; Service, Robert, مرتب (1998). Russian Nationalism, Past and Present. Springer. ص. 8. ISBN 9781349265329.
  3. ↑ Grey, Ian (2015). Russia: A History. New Word City. ص. 5. ISBN 9781612309019.
  4. ↑ Ketola, Kari; Vihavainen, Timo (2014). Changing Russia? : history, culture and business (1 ڇاپو). Helsinki: Finemor. ص. 1. ISBN 978-9527124017.
  5. ↑ Curtis, Glenn Eldon (1998). Russia: A Country Study (انگريزي ۾). Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. ص. 12. ISBN 978-0-8444-0866-8. Muscovy gained full sovereignty over the ethnically Russian lands... by the beginning of the sixteenth century virtually all those lands were united
  6. ↑ Article 1 of the Lisbon Protocol from the U.S. State Department website. آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 28 May 2019 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين.
  7. ↑ Щелинский В. Е. и др. Раннеплейстоценовая стоянка Кермек в Западном Предкавказье (предварительные результаты комплексных исследований) آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 21 March 2021 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين. // Краткие сообщения ИА РАН. Вып. 239, 2015.
  8. ↑ Щелинский В. Е. "Об охоте на крупных млекопитающих и использовании водных пищевых ресурсов в раннем палеолите (по материалам раннеашельских стоянок Южного Приазовья)" (PDF). www.archaeolog.ru (روسي ۾). محفوظ ڪيل (PDF) مان اصل نسخي کان 7 June 2023 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 17 December 2019 تي حاصل ڪيل. // Краткие сообщения Института археологии. Вып. 254. 2019
  9. ↑ Chepalyga, A.L.; Amirkhanov, Kh.A.; Trubikhin, V.M.; Sadchikova, T.A.; Pirogov, A.N.; Taimazov, A.I. (2011). "Geoarchaeology of the earliest paleolithic sites (Oldowan) in the North Caucasus and the East Europe". اصل نسخو مان 20 May 2013 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 18 December 2013 تي حاصل ڪيل. Early Paleolithic cultural layers with tools of oldowan type was discovered in East Caucasus (Dagestan, Russia) by Kh. Amirkhanov (2006) [...]
  10. ↑ A fourth Denisovan individual آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 15 August 2022 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين., 2017.
  11. ↑ Matthew Warren, «Mum's a Neanderthal, Dad's a Denisovan: First discovery of an ancient-human hybrid - Genetic analysis uncovers a direct descendant of two different groups of early humans», Nature, vol. 560, 23 August 2018, pp. 417-418.
  12. ↑ Igor V. Ovchinnikov; Anders Götherström; Galina P. Romanova; Vitaliy M. Kharitonov; Kerstin Lidén; William Goodwin (30 March 2000). "Molecular analysis of Neanderthal DNA from the northern Caucasus". Nature 404 (6777): 490–493. doi:10.1038/35006625. PMID 10761915. Bibcode: 2000Natur.404..490O.
  13. ↑ Mitchell, Alanna (30 January 2012). "Gains in DNA Are Speeding Research into Human Origins". The New York Times. محفوظ ڪيل مان اصل نسخي کان 12 September 2017 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 27 February 2017 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  14. ↑ Belinskij, Andrej; H. Härke (March–April 1999). "The 'Princess' of Ipatovo". Archeology 52 (2). http://cat.he.net/~archaeol/9903/newsbriefs/ipatovo.html. Retrieved 26 December 2007. آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 10 June 2008 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين.
  15. ↑ Belinskij, Andrej; H. Härke (March–April 1999). "The 'Princess' of Ipatovo". Archeology 52 (2). http://cat.he.net/~archaeol/9903/newsbriefs/ipatovo.html. Retrieved 26 December 2007. آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 10 June 2008 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين.
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  19. ↑ Esther Jacobson, The Art of the Scythians: The Interpenetration of Cultures at the Edge of the Hellenic World, Brill, 1995, p. 38. ISBN 90-04-09856-9.
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  25. ↑ Daniel H. Frank and Oliver Leaman, History of Jewish Philosophy, Routledge, 1997, p. 196. ISBN 0-415-08064-9.
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  30. ↑ Richman, Sheldon L. (1981). "War Communism to NEP: The Road to Serfdom". The Journal of Libertarian Studies 5 (1): 89–97. https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/5_1/5_1_5.pdf. Retrieved 3 October 2014.
  31. ↑ Richman, Sheldon L. (1981). "War Communism to NEP: The Road to Serfdom". The Journal of Libertarian Studies 5 (1): 89–97. https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/5_1/5_1_5.pdf. Retrieved 3 October 2014.
  32. ↑ Baten, Jörg; Behle, Dominic (2010). "Regional Determinants of Firm Creation in the Russian Empire. Evidence from the 1870 Industrial Exhibition". Russian Economic History Yearbook 01.
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  110. ↑ "Government". Country Studies. محفوظ ڪيل مان اصل نسخي کان 20 May 2018 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 22 July 2007 تي حاصل ڪيل. Because of the Russians' dominance in the affairs of the union, the RSFSR failed to develop some of the institutions of governance and administration that were typical of public life in the other republics: a republic-level communist party, a Russian academy of sciences, and Russian branches of trade unions, for example.
  111. ↑ "Меморандум Бурбулиса". 24 September 1991.
  112. ↑ "Геннадий Бурбулис в интервью "Интерфаксу: "Меморандум Бурбулиса" - это концепция реформ группы Гайдара". 24 September 1991.
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  116. 1 2 "Timeline: Soviet Union". BBC. 3 March 2006. محفوظ ڪيل مان اصل نسخي کان 28 August 2017 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 22 July 2007 تي حاصل ڪيل. 1991 25 December – Gorbachev resigns as Soviet president; US recognises independence of remaining Soviet republics
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  136. ↑ "Путин заявил, что договорился с Медведевым о "рокировке" 4 года назад" [Putin said that he agreed with Medvedev on “castling” 4 years ago]. РИА Новости. 17 October 2011. محفوظ ڪيل مان اصل نسخي کان 18 December 2019 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 18 December 2019 تي حاصل ڪيل.
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  138. ↑ "Russian Lessons from the Syrian Operation and the Culture of Military Innovation". www.marshallcenter.org (انگريزي ۾). اصل نسخو مان 10 October 2022 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 4 October 2022 تي حاصل ڪيل.
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  146. ↑ "Russia adopts new anti-West foreign policy strategy". Deutsche Welle. 31 March 2023. اصل نسخو مان 15 April 2023 تي محفوظ ڪيل.
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  148. ↑ Yeung, Jessie (25 June 2023). "Moscow has stepped back from civil war with Wagner. But the danger's not over, experts warn". CNN. محفوظ ڪيل مان اصل نسخي کان 29 June 2023 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 29 June 2023 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  149. ↑ Cooper, Helene; Gibbons-Neff, Thomas; Schmitt, Eric; Barnes, Julian E. (18 August 2023). "Troop Deaths and Injuries in Ukraine War Near 500,000, U.S. Officials Say". The New York Times (انگريزي ۾). محفوظ ڪيل مان اصل نسخي کان 3 September 2023 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 3 September 2023 تي حاصل ڪيل.

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