مواد ڏانھن هلو

رابطي جي ٻولي

کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
سال 1830ع ۾ ڇپيل فرانسيسي ٻولي جي لغت جيڪا رومي سمنڊ جي علائقي جي رابطي جي ٻولي (Mediterranean Lingua Franca) کي تفصيل سان بيان ڪري ٿي.

لنگئا فرانڪا (Lingua Franca) رابطي جي ٻولي. اها ٻولي، جيڪا ڪنهن وسيع علائقي ۾ مختلف ٻولين ڳالهائيندڙن جي وچ ۾ رابطي ۽ ابلاغ جو ڪم ڏئي سگهي. جيئن ننڍي کنڊ ۽ پاڪستان ۾ اردو، ڏکڻ آفريڪا جي ملڪن ۾ عربي وغيره لنگئا فرانڪا يا رابطي جون ٻوليون آهن.[1]

هڪ رابطي جي ٻولي (Lingua Franca؛ /ˌlɪŋɡwə ˈfræŋkə/)، جنهن کي پل جي ٻولي، عام ٻولي، واپاري ٻولي، معاون ٻولي يا وسيع رابطي جي ٻولي (LWC) جي نالي سان پڻ سڃاتو وڃي ٿو، هڪ اهڙي ٻولي هوندي آهي جيڪا منظم طور تي ماڻهن جي گروهن جي وچ ۾ رابطي کي ممڪن بڻائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي. جيڪا هڪ مادري ٻولي يا لهجو شيئر نٿا ڪن. خاص طور تي جڏهن اها ٽئين ٻولي هجي، جيڪا مادري ٻولين جي ٻنهي ڳالهائيندڙن کان مختلف آهي.[2]

ڪڏهن ڪڏهن تجارتي سببن جي ڪري، "واپار جي ٻوليون" واپار کي آسان بڻايو. پر ثقافتي، مذهبي، سفارتي ۽ انتظامي سهولت لاءِ پڻ ۽ سائنسدانن ۽ مختلف قوميتن جي ٻين عالمن جي وچ ۾ معلومات جي تبادلي جي هڪ ذريعي طور رابطي جي ٻوليون سڄي دنيا ۾ انساني تاريخ ۾ ترقي ڪيون آهن.[3][4]

اصطلاح قرون وسطيٰ جي ميڊيٽرينين لنگوا فرانڪا مان ورتي وئي آهي، هڪ رومانوي تي ٻڌل پڊجن ٻولي جيڪا خاص طور تي 11هين کان 19هين صدي تائين رومي سمنڊ جي علائقن ۾ واپارين پاران استعمال ڪئي ويندي هئي.[5] هڪ عالمي ٻولي، هڪ ٻولي جيڪا بين الاقوامي سطح تي ۽ ڪيترن ئي ماڻهن پاران ڳالهائي ويندي آهي، هڪ اهڙي ٻولي آهي جيڪا هڪ عالمي رابطي جي ٻولي (Global Lingua franca) طور ڪم ڪري سگهي ٿي.[6]

خاصيتون

[سنواريو]
سال 1908ع ۾ دي هارمس ورٿ اٽلس ۽ گزيٽيئر مان دنيا جون واپاري ٻوليون

ڪنهن به ٻولي جيڪا باقاعدي طور تي انهن ماڻهن جي وچ ۾ رابطي لاءِ استعمال ڪئي ويندي آهي جيڪي هڪ مادري ٻولي شيئر نٿا ڪن، اها هڪ لنگئا فرانڪا آهي.[7] لنگئا فرانڪا هڪ فعلي اصطلاح آهي، جيڪو ڪنهن به لساني تاريخ يا ٻولي جي جوڙجڪ کان آزاد آهي.[8]

تنهن ڪري، ڪريئول ٻوليون لنگوا فرانڪا آهن ۽ دليل طور تي مخلوط ٻوليون به ساڳي طرح ٻولي گروپن جي وچ ۾ رابطي لاءِ استعمال ٿي سگهن ٿيون. بهرحال، اصطلاح لنگوا فرانڪا هڪ غير ڪريئول ٻولي تي هڪجهڙائي سان لاڳو ٿئي ٿي جيڪي هڪ قوم جي مقامي آهي، اڪثر ڪري هڪ نوآبادياتي طاقت، جيڪا ٻي ٻولي جي طور تي سکي ويندي آهي ۽ هڪ ڪالوني يا اڳوڻي ڪالوني ۾ مختلف ٻولي برادرين جي وچ ۾ رابطي لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي آهي.[9]

لنگئا فرانڪا اڪثر ڪري مقامي ڳالهائيندڙن سان اڳ ۾ موجود ٻوليون آهن، پر اهي ان مخصوص علائقي يا حوالي سان ترقي يافته پڊجن يا ڪريئول پڻ ٿي سگهن ٿيون. پڊجن ٻن يا وڌيڪ قائم ٿيل ٻولين جا تيزي سان ترقي يافته ۽ آسان ميلاپ آهن، جڏهن ته ڪريئول کي عام طور تي پڊجن جي طور تي ڏٺو ويندو آهي جيڪي ايندڙ نسلن پاران موافقت جي دوران مڪمل طور تي پيچيده ٻولين ۾ ترقي ڪئي آهي.[10] گهڻو ڪري، اڳ ۾ موجود لنگئا فرانڪا جهڙوڪ فرانسيسي وڏي پيماني تي واپاري يا سياسي معاملن ۾ رابطي کي آسان بڻائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو وينديون آهن، جڏهن ته پڊجن ۽ ڪريول اڪثر نوآبادياتي حالتن ۽ نوآبادياتي ۽ مقامي ماڻهن جي وچ ۾ رابطي جي هڪ خاص ضرورت مان پيدا ٿين ٿيون. [11] اڳ ۾ موجود لنگئا فرانڪا عام طور تي وسيع، انتهائي ترقي يافته ٻوليون آهن جن جا ڪيترائي مقامي ڳالهائيندڙ هوندا آهن.[12] ان جي برعڪس، پڊجن رابطي جا تمام آسان ذريعا آهن، جن ۾ ڍڪيل جوڙجڪ، ڪجهه گراماتي قاعدا ۽ ڪجهه يا ڪو به مقامي ڳالهائيندڙ نه آهن. ڪريئول ٻوليون پنهنجي آبائي پڊجن کان وڌيڪ ترقي يافته آهن، وڌيڪ پيچيده جوڙجڪ، گرامر ۽ لفظ استعمال ڪندي، انهي سان گڏ مقامي ڳالهائيندڙن جي وڏي برادريون آهن.[13]

جڏهن ته هڪ مقامي ٻولي هڪ مخصوص جاگرافيائي برادري جي مادري ٻولي آهي.[14] هڪ لنگئا فرانڪا پنهنجي اصل برادري جي حدن کان ٻاهر، واپار، مذهبي، سياسي، يا تعليمي سببن لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. مثال طور، انگريزي برطانيه ۾ هڪ (سانچو:Emphasis) آهي پر اهو فلپائن ۾ فلپائن سان گڏ (سانچو:Emphasis) طور استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي. ساڳئي طرح، عربي، فرينچ، معياري چيني، روسي ۽ اسپيني علائقائي ۽ قومي حدون پار صنعتي ۽ تعليمي لنگوا فرينڪا جي طور تي ساڳيا مقصد پورا ڪن ٿا.

جيتوڻيڪ اهي پل ٻولين جي طور تي استعمال ٿين ٿيون، بين الاقوامي معاون ٻوليون جهڙوڪ ايسپرانٽو کي وڏي پيماني تي اپنائڻ جي صلاحيت حاصل نه آهي، تنهن ڪري انهن کي لنگوا فرينڪا طور بيان نه ڪيو ويو آهي.[15]

اشتقاق

[سنواريو]

اصطلاح "لنگوا فرانڪا" ميڊيٽرينين لنگوا فرانڪا (جنهن کي سئبر پڻ سڏيو ويندو آهي) مان نڪتل آهي، اها پڊجن ٻولي جيڪا ليونٽ ۽ اوڀر ميڊيٽرينين سمنڊ جي آس پاس جا ماڻهو وچين دور جي آخر کان 18 صدي تائين، خاص طور تي نشاۃِ ثانيه جي دور ۾، واپار ۽ سفارتڪاري جي مکيه ٻولي طور استعمال ڪندا هئا.[16] ان عرصي دوران، اوڀر ميڊيٽرينين ۾ خاص طور تي اطالوي ۽ اولهه ميڊيٽرينين ۾ اسپيني جو هڪ آسان نسخو، جنهن ۾ يوناني، سلاويڪ ٻولين، عربي ۽ ترڪي مان ڪيترائي قرض ورتل لفظ شامل هئا، علائقي جي "لنگئا فرانڪا" طور وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيڻ لڳو، جيتوڻيڪ ڪجهه عالمن جو دعويٰ آهي ته ميڊيٽرينين لنگوا فرانڪا صرف گهٽ استعمال ٿيندڙ اطالوي هئي.[17]

لنگئا فرانڪا (مخصوص ٻولي) ۾، "لنگئا" اطالوي مان آهي جنهن جو مطلب "هڪ ٻولي" آهي. "فرانڪا" يوناني ٻولي جي لفظ "فرانڪوئي" (Φρᾰ́γκοι).۽ عربي ٻولي جي لفظ، "إِفْرَنْجِي" سان لاڳاپيل آهي ۽ ان جي برابر اطالوي پڻ آهي. ٽنهي صورتن ۾، لفظي معنيٰ 'فرئنڪش' آهي، جنهن جي نتيجي ۾ سڌو ترجمو ٿئي ٿو: 'فرئنڪس جي ٻولي'. بازنطيني سلطنت جي آخر ۾، فرئنڪس هڪ اصطلاح هئي، جيڪي سڀني مغربي يورپين تي لاڳو ٿيندي هئي.[18][19][20][21]

ادب ۾ اصطلاح جي تبديلين ذريعي، لنگئا فرانڪا کي پجن، ڪريئول ۽ گاڏين جي ٻولين جي ڪجهه يا سڀني شڪلن لاءِ هڪ عام اصطلاح طور تعبير ڪيو ويو آهي. معنيٰ ۾ هي تبديلي ان خيال سان منسوب ڪئي وئي آهي ته پجن ٻوليون صرف 16هين صدي کان آمريڪا، آفريڪا ۽ ايشيا جهڙن کنڊن جي يورپي نوآبادي جي ڪري وڏي پيماني تي مشهور ٿيون. انهيءَ دوران، انهن پِڊجن ٻولين کي خطاب ڪرڻ لاءِ هڪ اصطلاح جي ضرورت پيدا ٿي، تنهن ڪري لنگئا فرانڪا جي معنيٰ ۾ هڪ واحد خاص اسم کان هڪ عام اسم ڏانهن تبديلي آئي جيڪا پِڊجن ٻولين جي هڪ وڏي طبقي کي شامل ڪري ٿي.[22]

20هين صدي جي آخر ۾، ڪجهه ماڻهن عام اصطلاح جي استعمال کي صرف مخلوط ٻولين جي معنيٰ تائين محدود ڪيو جيڪي، ان جي اصل معنيٰ ۾ گاڏين جي ٻولين طور استعمال ٿين ٿيون.[23]

ڊگلس هارپر جي آن لائن ايٽائمولوجي ڊڪشنري ۾ چيو ويو آهي ته اصطلاح لنگئا فرانڪا (خاص ٻولي جي نالي جي طور تي)[24] پهريون ڀيرو 1670ع جي ڏهاڪي دوران انگريزي ۾ رڪارڊ ڪيو ويو، جيتوڻيڪ انگريزي ۾ ان جي استعمال جي هڪ اڳوڻي مثال 1632ع کان تصديق ٿيل آهي، جتي ان کي "باسٽرڊ اسپينش" پڻ سڏيو ويندو آهي.[25]

استعمال

[سنواريو]

هي اصطلاح انگريزيءَ ۾ پنهنجي قدرتي ڪرڻ ۾ چڱيءَ طرح قائم آهي، تنهن ڪري وڏيون ڊڪشنريون ان کي "غير ملڪي" اصطلاح طور ترڪيب نه ٿيون ڏين.[26][27][28]

انگريزيءَ ۾ ان جا جمع "لنگئا فرانڪاز" (lingua francas) ۽ "لنگئا فرانڪائ" (linguae francae) آهن، جن ۾ پهريون يا واحد فارم وڏين ڊڪشنرين ۾ درج ٿيل آهي، جڏهن ته بعد وارو گهٽ ئي استعمال ٿيندو آهي.[26][27][28]

مثالون

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو عام رابطي جي ٻولين جي فهرست

تاريخي عام رابطي جون ٻوليون

[سنواريو]
ڪوائن يوناني ٻولي

لنگئا فرانڪا جو استعمال قديم زماني کان موجود آهي. اڪادي ٻولي ڪيترن ئي اڳوڻين سلطنتن کان مغربي ايشيا جي هڪ وڏي حصي جي عام ٻولي رهي، جيستائين ان کي آرامي ٻولي طرفان هن ڪردار ۾ تبديل نه ڪيو ويو.[29][30]

سنسکرت تاريخي طور تي ڏکڻ ايشيا جي اڪثريت ۾ هڪ لنگوا فرينڪا طور ڪم ڪيو. سنسڪرت ٻولي جي تاريخي موجودگي ڏکڻ ايشيا کان ٻاهر هڪ وسيع جاگرافي ۾ تصديق ٿيل آهي. لکت ۽ ادبي ثبوت اهو ظاهر ڪن ٿا ته سنسڪرت پهرين صدي عيسوي ۾ ڏکڻ اوڀر ايشيا ۽ وچ ايشيا ۾ راهبن، مذهبي زيارتين ۽ واپارين ذريعي اختيار ڪئي پئي وئي.[31][32][33]

20هين صدي جي شروعات تائين، ادبي چيني ٻولي چين، جاپان، ڪوريا، ريوڪو ۽ ويٽنام سميت اوڀر ايشيا ۾ لکيل لنگئا فرانڪا ۽ سفارتي ٻولي ٻنهي طور ڪم ڪيو.[34] 20هين صدي جي شروعات ۾، مقامي لکت واري چيني ٻولي چين اندر ڪلاسيڪل چيني ٻولي جي جاءِ تي مختلف چيني لهجن جي ڳالهائيندڙن لاءِ لکيل ۽ ڳالهائي ويندڙ لهجو طور استعمال ٿي، ۽ اوڀر ايشيا ۾ چين جي طاقت ۽ ثقافتي اثر جي گهٽتائي جي ڪري، انگريزي ٻولي اوڀر ايشيا ۾ ڪلاسيڪل چيني ٻولي جي جاءِ تي استعمال ٿي آهي.

ڪوائن يوناني هيلينسٽڪ ڪلچر جي لينگوا فرينڪا هئي.[35] ڪوئن يوناني[36] (يوناني: Ελληνιστική Κοινή، رومانوي: ايلينسٽيڪي ڪيني، لفظي طور تي 'عام يوناني'؛ ايل)، جنهن کي اليگزينڊرين لهجو،[37] عام اٽڪ، هيلينسٽڪ، يا بائيبليڪل يوناني جي نالي سان پڻ سڃاتو وڃي ٿو، يوناني ٻولي جي عام مٿاهين علائقائي شڪل هئي، [38]جيڪا هيلينسٽڪ دور، رومن سلطنت ۽ شروعاتي بازنطيني سلطنت[39] دوران ڳالهائي ۽ لکي ويندي هئي. اهو چوٿين صدي قبل مسيح ۾ سڪندر اعظم جي فتحن کان پوءِ يوناني ٻولي جي پکڙجڻ مان اڀريو، ۽ ايندڙ صدين دوران ميڊيٽرينين علائقي ۽ وچ اوڀر جي گهڻي ڀاڱي جي ٻولي طور ڪم ڪيو.[40]

لاطيني، رومن ريپبلڪ جي طاقت ذريعي، اٽلي ۾ ۽ بعد ۾ رومن سلطنت جي سڀني علائقن ۾ غالب ٻولي بڻجي وئي. مغربي رومن سلطنت جي زوال کان پوءِ به، لاطيني يورپ ۾ رابطي، سائنس ۽ تعليمي جي عام ٻولي هئي جيستائين 18 صدي تائين، جڏهن ٻين علائقائي مقامي ٻولين (ان جي پنهنجي اولاد، رومانوي ٻولين سميت) ان کي عام علمي ۽ سياسي استعمال ۾ تبديل ڪيو، ۽ آخرڪار اهو جديد لساني تعريف ۾ هڪ مئل ٻولي بڻجي ويو.

قديم تامل ڪڏهن قديم تامل ۽ سري لنڪا جي اڪثر علائقن لاءِ ٻولي هئي. جان گائي چوي ٿو ته تامل ٻولي هندستان جي شروعاتي سامونڊي واپارين لاءِ پڻ ٻولي هئي.[41] ٻولي ۽ ان جا لهجا ڪيرالا رياست ۾ 12هين صدي تائين انتظاميه، ادب ۽ عام استعمال جي وڏي ٻولي طور وڏي پيماني تي استعمال ٿيندا هئا.[42]ڪلاسيڪل ماوري، نيوزي لينڊ جي يورپي آبادڪاري کان 800 سال اڳ اتر ٻيٽ ۽ ڏکڻ ٻيٽ جي ٻولي (ڪيترن ئي لهجن مان ٺهيل، جيتوڻيڪ سڀئي هڪٻئي سان سمجهه ۾ ايندڙ) جو پس منظري نالو آهي. ماوري هڪ عام ٻولي شيئر ڪئي جيڪا واپار، مارائي تي بين الاقوامي ڳالهه ٻولهه ۽ وانگا ذريعي تعليم لاءِ استعمال ٿيندي هئي. ويٽانگي جي معاهدي تي دستخط ڪرڻ کان پوءِ، ماوري ٻولي نيوزي لينڊ جي ڪالوني جي ٻولي هئي جيستائين انگريزي 1870 جي ڏهاڪي ۾ ان کي ختم نه ڪيو. ماوري ٻولي کي نيوزي لينڊ جي 19 صدي جي ٻولي جي طور تي بيان ڪرڻ کي وڏي پيماني تي قبول ڪيو ويو آهي. ٻولي شروعاتي طور تي نيوزي لينڊ ۾ سڀني يورپي ۽ چيني مهاجرن لاءِ سکڻ لاءِ اهم هئي. جيئن ته ماوري آبادي جي اڪثريت ٺاهي، ملڪ جي تقريبن سڄي زمين جي مالڪ هئي ۽ 1860 جي ڏهاڪي تائين معيشت تي غلبو حاصل ڪيو. 1867 جي مقامي اسڪول ايڪٽ جهڙن امتيازي قانونن ماوري ٻولي کي ٻولي جي طور تي ختم ڪرڻ ۾ حصو ورتو. اڳئين رابطي جي دور ۾. ماوري يورپي مسافرن ۽ مجموعي طور تي واپاري پولينيشين جي وچ ۾ استعمال لاءِ سامونڊي پولينيشين پڊجن جي بنيادن مان پڻ هو. * سوگڊين کي ريشم روڊ تي مختلف ٻوليون ڳالهائيندڙن جي وچ ۾ واپار کي آسان بڻائڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو هو، اهو ئي سبب آهي ته سوگڊين جي مقامي ڳالهائيندڙن کي تانگ چين ۾ مترجم طور ڪم ڪيو ويندو هو. سوگڊين روحاني عقيدن ۽ متنن کي به گردش ڪرڻ شروع ڪيو، جن ۾ ٻڌمت ۽ عيسائيت جا ماڻهو به شامل هئا، انهن جي صلاحيت جي ڪري ته اهي علائقي جي ڪيترن ئي ماڻهن سان پنهنجي مادري ٻولي ذريعي رابطو ڪري سگهن ٿا. * پراڻي چرچ سلاوونڪ، هڪ اوڀر ڏکڻ سلاوينڪ ٻولي، پهرين سلاوينڪ ادبي ٻولي آهي. 9 هين ۽ 11 هين صدي جي وچ ۾، اهو ڏکڻ اوڀر ۽ اوڀر يورپ ۾ گهڻو ڪري سلاوين رياستن ۽ آبادي جي هڪ وڏي حصي جي ٻولي هئي، عبادت ۽ چرچ جي تنظيم، ثقافت، ادب، تعليم ۽ سفارتڪاري ۾، بلغاريا جي صورت ۾ هڪ سرڪاري ٻولي ۽ قومي ٻولي جي طور تي. اها پهرين قومي ۽ بين الاقوامي سلاويڪ ادبي ٻولي هئي (خودمختياري словѣ́ньскъ ѩꙁꙑ́къ، slověnĭskŭ językŭ). گليگوليٽڪ الفابيٽ اصل ۾ ٻنهي اسڪولن ۾ استعمال ٿيندي هئي، جيتوڻيڪ سيريلڪ رسم الخط پريسلاو ادبي اسڪول ۾ شروعاتي طور تي تيار ڪيو ويو هو، جتي ان 893 ۾ بلغاريا ۾ سرڪاري رسم الخط جي طور تي گليگوليٽڪ کي ختم ڪيو. پراڻي چرچ سلاوونڪ ٻين ڏکڻ-اوڀر، مرڪزي ۽ اوڀر يورپي سلاوين علائقن ۾ پکڙجي وئي، خاص طور تي ڪروشيا، سربيا، بوهيميا، ليسر پولينڊ، ۽ ڪيويوان روس جي پرنسپالٽيز ۾ جڏهن ته خاص طور تي ڏکڻ سلاوين لساني خاصيتون برقرار رکيون ويون. اهو ڪارپيٿين جبلن، ڊينيوب ۽ ڪاري سمنڊ جي وچ ۾ مڪمل طور تي سلاوين علائقن ۾ به پکڙجي ويو، جيڪو والاچيا ۽ مولداويا سان ملندڙ جلندڙ هو.

Classical Māori is the retrospective name for the language (formed out of many dialects, albeit all mutually intelligible)[43] of both the North Island and the South Island for the 800 years before the European settlement of New Zealand.[44][45][46][47][48] Māori shared a common language that was used for trade, inter-iwi dialogue on marae, and education through wānanga.[49][50] After the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, Māori language was the lingua franca of the Colony of New Zealand until English superseded it in the 1870s.[43][51] The description of Māori language as New Zealand's 19th-century lingua franca has been widely accepted.[52][51][53][54] The language was initially vital for all European and Chinese migrants in New Zealand to learn,[55][53][51] as Māori formed a majority of the population, owned nearly all the country's land and dominated the economy until the 1860s.[55][56] Discriminatory laws such as the Native Schools Act 1867 contributed to the demise of Māori language as a lingua franca.[43] In earlier contact eras, Māori was also among the bases for Maritime Polynesian Pidgin for use between European voyagers and trading Polynesians as a whole.[57]

Sogdian was used to facilitate trade between those who spoke different languages along the Silk Road, which is why native speakers of Sogdian were employed as translators in Tang China.[58] The Sogdians also ended up circulating spiritual beliefs and texts, including those of Buddhism and Christianity, thanks to their ability to communicate to many people in the region through their native language.[59]

Old Church Slavonic, an Eastern South Slavic language, is the first Slavic literary language. Between 9th and 11th century, it was the lingua franca of a great part of the predominantly Slavic states and populations in Southeast and Eastern Europe, in liturgy and church organization, culture, literature, education and diplomacy, as an Official language and National language in the case of Bulgaria. It was the first national and also international Slavic literary language (autonym словѣ́ньскъ ѩꙁꙑ́къ, slověnĭskŭ językŭ).[60][61] The Glagolitic alphabet was originally used at both schools, though the Cyrillic script was developed early on at the Preslav Literary School, where it superseded Glagolitic as the official script in Bulgaria in 893. Old Church Slavonic spread to other South-Eastern, Central, and Eastern European Slavic territories, most notably Croatia, Serbia, Bohemia, Lesser Poland, and principalities of the Kievan Rus' while retaining characteristically South Slavic linguistic features. It spread also to not completely Slavic territories between the Carpathian Mountains, the Danube and the Black Sea, corresponding to Wallachia and Moldavia. Nowadays, the Cyrillic writing system is used for various languages across Eurasia, and as the national script in various Slavic, Turkic, Mongolic, Uralic, Caucasian and Iranic-speaking countries in Southeast Europe, Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, Central, North, and East Asia.

The Polish language was a lingua franca,[62][63] important both diplomatically and academically in Central and part of Eastern Europe. Tomasz Kamusella notes that "Polish is the oldest, non-ecclesiastical, written Slavic language with a continuous tradition of literacy and official use, which has lasted unbroken from the 16th century to this day."[64] Polish evolved into the main sociolect of the nobles in Poland–Lithuania in the 15th century.[65] The history of Polish as a language of state governance begins in the 16th century in the Kingdom of Poland. Over the later centuries, Polish served as the official language in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Congress Poland, the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, and as the administrative language in the Russian Empire's Western Krai. The growth of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's influence gave Polish the status of lingua franca in Central and Eastern Europe.[66]

The Mediterranean Lingua Franca was largely based on Northern Italy's languages and secondarily on Occitano-Romance languages. This language was spoken from the 11th to 19th centuries around the Mediterranean basin, particularly in the European commercial empires of Italian cities (Genoa, Venice, Florence, Milan, Pisa, Siena) and in trading ports located throughout the eastern Mediterranean rim.[67]

During the Renaissance, standard Italian was spoken as a language of culture in the main royal courts of Europe, and among intellectuals.[حوالو گهربل] Italian musical terms, in particular dynamic and tempo notations, have continued in use to the present day.[68][69]

Extent of Middle Low German in red with its use as a literary language black lines tilted right

Low German, also known as Low Saxon, used to be the Lingua franca during the late Hohenstaufen till the mid-15th century periods (Middle Low German), in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea when extensive trading was done by the Hanseatic League along the Baltic and North Seas.

Classical Quechua is either of two historical forms of Quechua, the exact relationship and degree of closeness between which is controversial, and which have sometimes been identified with each other.[70] These are:

  1. the variety of Quechua that was used as a lingua franca and administrative language in the Inca Empire (1438–1533)[71] (or Inca lingua franca[72]). Since the Incas did not have writing, the evidence about the characteristics of this variety is scant and they have been a subject of significant disagreements.[73]
  2. the variety of Quechua that was used in writing for religious and administrative purposes in the Andean territories of the Spanish Empire, mostly in the late 16th century and the first half of the 17th century and has sometimes been referred to, both historically and in academia, as lengua general ('common language')[74][75][76][77] (or Standard Colonial Quechua[78]).

Ajem-Turkic functioned as lingua franca in the Caucasus region and in southeastern Dagestan, and was widely spoken at the court and in the army of Safavid Iran.[79]

Modern

[سنواريو]

English

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو English as a lingua franca
English language distribution
  Majority native language
  Official or administrative language, but not native language

English is sometimes described as the foremost global lingua franca, being used as a working language by individuals of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds in a variety of fields and international organizations to communicate with one another.[80] English is the most spoken language in the world, primarily due to the historical global influence of the British Empire and the United States.[81] It is a co-official language of the United Nations and many other international and regional organizations and has also become the de facto language of diplomacy, science, international trade, tourism, aviation, entertainment and the Internet.[82]

When the United Kingdom became a colonial power, English served as the lingua franca of the colonies of the British Empire. In the post-colonial period, most of the newly independent nations which had many indigenous languages opted to continue using English as one of their official languages such as Ghana and South Africa.[80] In other former colonies with several official languages such as Singapore and Fiji, English is the primary medium of education and serves as the lingua franca among citizens.[83][84][85]

Even in countries not associated with the English-speaking world, English has emerged as a lingua franca in certain situations where its use is perceived to be more efficient to communicate, especially among groups consisting of native speakers of many languages. In Qatar, the medical community is primarily made up of workers from countries without English as a native language. In medical practices and hospitals, nurses typically communicate with other professionals in English as a lingua franca.[86] This occurrence has led to interest in researching the consequences of the medical community communicating in a lingua franca.[86] English is also sometimes used in Switzerland between people who do not share one of Switzerland's four official languages, or with foreigners who are not fluent in the local language.[87] In the European Union, the use of English as a lingua franca has led researchers to investigate whether a Euro English dialect has emerged.[88] In the fields of technology and science, English emerged as a lingua franca in the 20th century.[89] English has also significantly influenced many other languages.[90]

Spanish

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Hispanophone
Spanish language distribution
  Official language
  Co-official language
  Culturally important or secondary language (> 20% of the population)

The Spanish language spread mainly throughout the New World, becoming a lingua franca in the territories and colonies of the Spanish Empire, which also included parts of Africa, Asia, and Oceania. After the breakup of much of the empire in the Americas, its function as a lingua franca was solidified by the governments of the newly independent nations of what is now Hispanic America.[91] While its usage in Spain's Asia-Pacific colonies has largely died out, Spanish became the lingua franca of what is now Equatorial Guinea, being the main language of government and education and is spoken by the vast majority of the population.[92]

Due to large numbers of immigrants from Latin America in the second half of the 20th century and resulting influence, Spanish has also emerged somewhat as a lingua franca in parts of the Southwestern United States and southern Florida, especially in communities where native Spanish speakers form the majority of the population.[93][94]

At present it is the second most used language in international trade, and the third most used in politics, diplomacy and culture after English and French.[95]

It is also one of the most taught foreign languages throughout the world[96] and is also one of the six official languages of the United Nations.

French

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Francophonie
French language distribution
  Majority native language
  Official language, but not a majority native language
  Administrative or cultural language

French is sometimes regarded as the first global lingua franca, having supplanted Latin as the prestige language of politics, trade, education, diplomacy, and military in early modern Europe and later spreading around the world with the establishment of the French colonial empire.[97] With France emerging as the leading political, economic, and cultural power of Europe in the mid-17th century, the language was adopted by royal courts throughout the continent, including the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Russia, and as the language of communication between European academics, merchants, and diplomats.[98] With the expansion of Western colonial empires, French became the main language of diplomacy and international relations up until World War II when it was replaced by English due to the rise of the United States as the leading superpower. Stanley Meisler of the Los Angeles Times said that the fact that the Treaty of Versailles was written in English as well as French was the "first diplomatic blow" against the language.[99] Nevertheless, it remains the second most used language in international affairs and is one of the six official languages of the United Nations.[100][101][102]

As a legacy of French and Belgian colonial rule, most former colonies of these countries maintain French as an official language or lingua franca due to the many indigenous languages spoken in their territory. Notably, in most Francophone West and Central African countries, French has transitioned from being only a lingua franca to the native language among some communities, mostly in urban areas or among the elite class.[103] In other regions such as the French-speaking countries of the Maghreb (Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, and Mauritania) and parts of the French Caribbean, French is the lingua franca in professional sectors and education, even though it is not the native language of the majority.[104][105][106]

French continues to be used as a lingua franca in certain cultural fields such as cuisine, fashion, and sport.[107][97]

As a consequence of Brexit, French has been increasingly used as a lingua franca in the European Union and its institutions either alongside or, at times, in place of English.[108][109]

German

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو DACH
Legal statuses of German in Europe:
  (co-)official language and first language of the majority
  co-official, but not the first language of the majority
  legally recognized minority language
  sizable minority, without legal recognition

German is used as a lingua franca in Central Europe and historically in Eastern and Northern Europe, and continues to be one to some extent.[110] As German speakers became established in these regions in Early modern Europe, Low German and later the modern standardized form of High German became the prestigious language of the urban centers, eventually becoming the common language of the Hanseatic League and later, lands ruled under the Holy Roman Empire and Habsburg monarchy.[111] Its prominence outside of Europe grew in the 19th century, becoming a common language in science and other academic fields such as psychology, and despite the rise of English, continues to serve as an important lingua franca.[112]

Outside of the German-speaking countries of Central Europe (Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Liechtenstein), German remains a key second language in the region and the Balkans, especially in former Yugoslavia.[113] It is also a national language in the former German colony of Namibia, where it is especially used in commerce and taught as a second language. German is also one of the working languages of the EU along with English and French, but it is used less in that role than the other two.

Chinese

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Sinosphere
Map of the Chinese-speaking world.
  native majority
  official or educational
  significant minorities

Today, Standard Mandarin Chinese is the lingua franca of China and Taiwan, which are home to many mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese and, in the case of Taiwan, indigenous Formosan languages. Among many Chinese diaspora communities, Cantonese is often used as the lingua franca instead, particularly in Southeast Asia, due to a longer history of immigration and trade networks with southern China, although Mandarin has also been adopted in some circles since the 2000s.[114]

Arabic

[سنواريو]
Arabic language map
Dark green: majority; light green: significant minority

Arabic was used as a lingua franca across the Islamic empires, whose sizes necessitated a common language, and spread across the Arab and Muslim worlds.[115] In Djibouti and parts of Eritrea, both of which are countries where multiple official languages are spoken, Arabic has emerged as a lingua franca in part thanks to the population of the region being predominantly Muslim and Arabic playing a crucial role in Islam. In addition, after having fled from Eritrea due to ongoing warfare and gone to some of the nearby Arab countries, Eritrean emigrants are contributing to Arabic becoming a lingua franca in the region by coming back to their homelands having picked up the Arabic language.[116]

Russian

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Russophone
Areas where Russian is the majority language (medium blue) or a minority language (light blue)

In addition to being the largest native language in Europe, Russian is widely spoken and understood in Central Asia and the Caucasus, areas formerly part of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union. Its use still predominates in many post-Soviet states. Russian is present as a minority language in the Baltic states, Moldova, and Ukraine. In Belarus, Russian is the second official language and is used much more widely than Belarusian. It remains the official language of the Commonwealth of Independent States. Russian is also one of the six official languages of the United Nations.[117] Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, its use has declined in post-Soviet states. Some members of Russian-speaking minorities outside Russia have either emigrated to Russia or become more integrated into their countries of residence, often learning the local language and, in some cases, using it more frequently in daily communication.

Unlike the former Soviet republics, in the Central European countries that fell under Soviet occupation and influence after World War II, Russian was taught in schools as a compulsory foreign language, and its practical use was limited to international communication within the Eastern Bloc. Russian-speaking minorities in these countries were very small or nonexistent, so after the collapse of the Eastern Bloc, English completely replaced Russian as the international language.

Italian

[سنواريو]
اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Italian language
Italian language distribution
  Areas where it is the majority language
  Areas where it is a minority language or where it was a former colonial language
  Areas where notable Italian-speaking communities are present

During the Renaissance, Italian, particularly the Tuscan variety that became the basis of standard Italian, was considered the lingua franca among the European elite and royal courts, especially in cultural and intellectual circles. The literary authority of figures such as Dante Alighieri, Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio established Italian as a major language of humanist scholarship and literature. Moreover, the political and economic influence of Italian city-states like the Republic of Florence and the Republic of Venice attracted diplomats, merchants, artists, and scholars from across Europe, many of whom engaged with Italian as a language of culture, commerce, and artistic exchange. While Latin remained the primary language of formal scholarship and diplomacy, Italian functioned as an important vernacular medium within elite artistic, literary, and courtly environments during that period.[118][119]

From the 17th century onward, Italian became the principal lingua franca of European music, particularly in opera and classical composition. Because Italy was the birthplace of opera and a leading center of musical innovation, its terminology was adopted internationally. Composers such as Claudio Monteverdi and later Antonio Vivaldi helped solidify Italian’s prestige, and musical terms became standard across Europe.[68][69]

Today, Italian is the main working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy and the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian influence led to the development of derivated languages and dialects worldwide. It is also widespread in various sectors and markets, with its loanwords used in arts, luxury goods, fashion, sports and cuisine; it has a significant use in musical terminology and opera, with numerous Italian words referring to music that have become international terms taken into various languages worldwide, including in English.[120]

Italian is an official language in Italy, San Marino, Switzerland (Ticino and part of the Grisons), and Vatican City, and it has official minority status in Croatia, Slovenia (Istria), Romania,[121][122] Bosnia and Herzegovina,[123] and in 6 municipalities of Brazil.[124][125] It is also spoken in Malta (by 66% of the population),[126] Albania (upwards of 70%),[127] and Monaco.[128]

Polish

[سنواريو]

Historically, the Polish language was a lingua franca of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth,[62][63] important both diplomatically and academically in Central and part of Eastern Europe. It is currently an official language in Poland and the European Union and a recognised minority language in Bosnia and Herzegovina,[129] Brazil,[130] Czech Republic,[129] Hungary,[131] Lithuania,[132][133] Romania,[134] Slovakia,[129] Ukraine.[129][135] In the United States, Polish Americans number more than 11 million.

Portuguese

[سنواريو]

سانچو:Unref section

The Lusophone world
  Native language
  Official and administrative language
  Cultural or secondary language

Portuguese served as lingua franca in the Portuguese Empire, Africa, South America and Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries. When the Portuguese started exploring the seas of Africa, America, Asia and Oceania, they tried to communicate with the natives by mixing a Portuguese-influenced version of lingua franca with the local languages. When Dutch, English or French ships came to compete with the Portuguese, the crews tried to learn this "broken Portuguese". Through a process of change the lingua franca and Portuguese lexicon was replaced with the languages of the people in contact. Portuguese remains an important lingua franca in the Portuguese-speaking African countries, East Timor, and to a certain extent in Macau where it is recognized as an official language alongside Chinese though in practice not commonly spoken. Portuguese and Spanish have a certain degree of mutual intelligibility and mixed languages such as Portuñol are used [حوالو گهربل] to facilitate communication in areas like the border area between Brazil and Uruguay.

Hindustani

[سنواريو]
The Hindi Belt (red) is a linguistic region in India where Hindustani (based on Dehlavi) serves as the lingua franca.

The Hindustani language, with Hindi and Urdu as dual standard varieties, serves as the lingua franca of Northern India and Pakistan.[136]سانچو:Self-published inline[137][صفحو گهربل] Many Hindi-speaking North Indian states have adopted the three-language formula in which students are taught: "(a) Hindi (with Sanskrit as part of the composite course); (b) Any other modern Indian language including Urdu and (c) English or any other modern European language." The order in non-Hindi speaking states is: "(a) the major language of the state or region; (b) Hindi; (c) Any other modern Indian language including Urdu but excluding (a) and (b) above; and (d) English or any other modern European language."[138] Hindi has also emerged as a lingua franca in Arunachal Pradesh, a linguistically diverse state in Northeast India.[139][140] It is estimated that nine-tenths of the state's population knows Hindi.[141]

Urdu is the lingua franca of Pakistan and had gained significant influence amongst its people, administration and education. While it shares official status with English, Urdu is the preferred and dominant language used for inter-communication between different ethnic groups of Pakistan.[142]

Malay

[سنواريو]
Countries where pluricentric Malay is spoken, regardless of standard variety

Malay is understood across a cultural region in Southeast Asia called the "Malay world" including Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, southern Thailand, and certain parts of the Philippines. It is pluricentric, with several nations codifying a local vernacular variety into several national literary standards:[143] Although Javanese has more native speakers, Indonesia uses a standardized form of Riau Malay as the basis for the national language "Indonesian." Bahasa Indonesia is the sole official language even though it is the mother tongue of only 7% of Indonesians.[144]

Swahili

[سنواريو]
Geographic extent of Swahili. Dark green: native range. Medium green: official use. Light green: bilingual use but not official.

Swahili developed as a lingua franca between several Bantu-speaking tribal groups on the east coast of Africa with heavy influence from Arabic.[145] The earliest examples of writing in Swahili are from 1711.[146] In the early 19th century the use of Swahili as a lingua franca moved inland with the Arabic ivory and slave traders. It was eventually adopted by Europeans as well during periods of colonization in the area. German colonizers used it as the language of administration in German East Africa, later becoming Tanganyika, which influenced the choice to use it as a national language in what is now independent Tanzania.[145] Swahili is currently one of the national languages and it is taught in schools and universities in several East African countries, thus prompting it to be regarded as a modern-day lingua franca by many people in the region. Several Pan-African writers and politicians have unsuccessfully called for Swahili to become the lingua franca of Africa as a means of unifying the African continent and overcoming the legacy of colonialism.[147]

Persian

[سنواريو]

سانچو:Unref section

Areas with significant numbers of people whose first language is Persian (including dialects)

Persian, an Iranian language, is the official language of Iran, Afghanistan (Dari) and Tajikistan (Tajik). It acts as a lingua franca in both Iran and Afghanistan between the various ethnic groups in those countries. The Persian language in South Asia, before the British colonized the Indian subcontinent, was the region's lingua franca and a widely used official language in north India and Pakistan.

Hausa

[سنواريو]

Hausa is the language of communication between speakers of different languages in Northern Nigeria and other West African countries,[148] including the northern region of Ghana.[149]

Amharic

[سنواريو]

Amharic is the lingua franca and most widely spoken language in Ethiopia, and is known by most people who speak another Ethiopian language.[150][151]

Creole languages

[سنواريو]

سانچو:Unref section

Creoles, such as Nigerian Pidgin in Nigeria, Haitian Creole, and Patois etc. are used as lingua francas across the world. This is especially true in Africa, the Caribbean, Melanesia, Southeast Asia and in parts of Australia by Indigenous Australians.

Sign languages

[سنواريو]
Map of the various sign languages of North America, excluding Francosign languages. Hand Talk was the predominant lingua franca prior to European settlement, able to be written down and signed alongside oral languages

The majority of pre-colonial North American nations communicated internationally using Hand Talk.[152][153] Also called Prairie Sign Language, Plains Indian Sign Language, or First Nations Sign Language, this language functioned predominantly—and still continues to function[154]—as a second language within most of the (now historical) countries of the Great Plains, from Newe Segobia in the West to Anishinaabewaki in the East, down into what are now the northern states of Mexico and up into Cree Country stopping before Denendeh.[155][156] The relationship remains unknown between Hand Talk and other manual Indigenous languages like Keresan Sign Language and Plateau Sign Language, the latter of which is now extinct (though Ktunaxa Sign Language is still used).[157] Although unrelated, perhaps Inuit Sign Language played and continues to play a similar role across Inuit Nunangat and the various Inuit dialects. The original Hand Talk is found across Indian Country in pockets, but it has also been employed to create new or revive old languages, such as with Oneida Sign Language.[158]

International Sign, though a pidgin language, is present at most significant international gatherings, from which interpretations of national sign languages are given, such as in LSF, ASL, BSL, Libras, or Auslan. International Sign, or IS and formerly Gestuno, interpreters can be found at many European Union parliamentary or committee sittings,[159] during certain United Nations affairs,[160] conducting international sporting events like the Deaflympics, in all World Federation of the Deaf functions, and across similar settings. The language has few set internal grammatical rules, instead co-opting national vocabularies of the speaker and audience, and modifying the words to bridge linguistic gaps, with heavy use of gestures and classifiers.[161]

پڻ ڏسو

[سنواريو]

حوالا

[سنواريو]
  1. ↑ ڪتاب: ادبي اصطلاحن جي تشريحي لغت؛ مرتب: مختيار احمد ملاح؛ پبلشر: سنڌي لئنگئيج اٿارٽي، حيدرآباد، سنڌ.
  2. ↑ Viacheslav A. Chirikba, "The problem of the Caucasian Sprachbund" in Pieter Muysken, ed., From Linguistic Areas to Areal Linguistics, 2008, p. 31. ISBN 90-272-3100-1
  3. ↑ Nye, Mary Jo (2016). "Speaking in Tongues: Science's centuries-long hunt for a common language". Distillations 2 (1): 40–43. https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/speaking-in-tongues. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
  4. ↑ حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Gordin".
  5. ↑ Italian-Based Pidgins and Lingua Franca. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. جلد 14. 1975. ص. 70–72.
  6. ↑ Woll, Bensie (22 March 2022). "English of often considered the de facto global language..." University College London Culture Online. University College London. 17 October 2024 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  7. ↑ "vehicular, adj." OED Online. Oxford University Press, July 2018. Web. 1 November 2018.
  8. ↑ Intro Sociolinguistics آرڪائيو ڪيا ويا 22 May 2018 حوالو موجود آهي وي بيڪ مشين. – Pidgin and Creole Languages: Origins and Relationships – Notes for LG102, – University of Essex, Peter L. Patrick – Week 11, Autumn term.
  9. ↑ Lingua Franca: Chomera or Reality? (PDF). Publ. Office of the Europ. Union. 2010. ISBN 9789279189876. محفوظ ڪيل (PDF) مان اصل نسخي کان 27 February 2020 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 15 December 2018 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  10. ↑ Romaine, Suzanne (1988). Pidgin and Creole Languages. Longman.
  11. ↑ "Lingua Franca, Pidgin, and Creole". 3 April 2015. محفوظ ڪيل مان اصل نسخي کان 21 August 2020 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 29 April 2019 تي حاصل ڪيل.
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