بلقان جي تاريخ

نقشو جيڪو بلقان ۾ عثماني توسيع جي حد کي 1683ع ڌاري ۽ 15هين ۽ 17هين صدي جي وچ ۾ تاريخي اهميت جا علائقائي واقعا ڏيکاري ٿو

بلقان، جزوي طور تي بلقان جزيره نما سان ملندڙ جلندڙ، انهن علائقن کي شامل ڪري ٿو جيڪي ڏکڻ اوڀر، ڏاکڻي، وچ ۽ اوڀر يورپ ۾ پڻ واقع ٿي سگهن ٿا. بلقان جي الڳ سڃاڻپ ۽ ٽڪراءُ ان جي اڪثر انتشار واري تاريخ جي ڪري آهي، جن ۾ خطو صدين کان عثماني تڪرار ۽ فتحن جو تجربو ڪري رهيو هيو. بلقان جزيري نما گهڻو ڪري جبلن تي مشتمل آهي، جنهن ۾ ڪيترائي جبلن جا سلسلا، جهڙوڪ ڊينارڪ الپس، پنڊس جبل ۽ بلقان جبل شامل آهن.

بلقان ۾ قومپرستي جو عروج

عثماني سلطنت جي دور ۾ قوم پرستي جي عروج باجرا جي تصورن جي ٽٽڻ جو سبب بڻيو. قومي رياستن ۽ انهن جي تاريخن جي عروج سان، هڪ قوم جي عثماني تصور ۽ عثماني خاندان ۽ صوبن جي وچ ۾ لاڳاپن جي صدين تي قابل اعتماد ذريعا ڳولڻ ڏکيو آهي، جيڪي رياستن ۾ تبديل ٿي ويا.

• بلغاريا جي قومي بحالي ۽ قومي جاڳرتا (18-19هين صدي)
• سربيائي انقلاب (1804-1815/1817/1833)
• يوناني جنگ آزادي (1821-1832ع)
• البانوي قومي جاڳرتا (1830-1912ع)
• بوسنيائي بغاوت (1831-1832ع)
• آرومان سوال (1815-1905ع)
• مولدويا ۽ والاچيا جو اتحاد ۽ رومانيا جي جنگ آزادي (1859-1878ع)
• 1875ع ۾ هرزيگووينا ۾ سربن جي بغاوت، جنهن جي ڪري سرب-ترڪي جنگيون (1876-1878ع) ۽ بلغاريا ۾ اپريل بغاوت جو خوني دٻاءُ، روس-ترڪي جنگ (1877-1878ع) ۽ 1878ع ۾ بلغاريا ۽ سربيا جي آزادي جي شروعات جو موقعو بڻجي ويو.

برلن جي ڪانفرنس

Anton von Werner, At the Congress of Berlin (1878) the tall Bismarck on the right is shaking hands with Gyula Andrássy and Pyotr Andreyevich Shuvalov; on the left are Alajos Károlyi, Alexander Gorchakov and Benjamin Disraeli

The Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a meeting of the leading statesmen of Europe's Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire. In the wake of the Russia's decisive victory in a war with Turkey, 1877–78, the urgent need was to stabilize and reorganize the Balkans, and set up new nations. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who led the Congress, undertook to adjust boundaries to minimize the risks of major war, while recognizing the reduced power of the Ottoman Empire, and balance the distinct interests of the great powers.

As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply; Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire, but was not allowed to keep all its previous territory. Bulgaria lost Eastern Rumelia, which was restored to the Turks under a special administration. Macedonia, and East and Western Thrace were returned outright to the Turks, who promised reform and Northern Dobrudja became part of Romania, which achieved full independence but had to turn over part of Bessarabia to Russia. Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories. The Habsburgs took over Bosnia and Herzegovina, and effectively took control of the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, in order to separate Serbia and Montenegro.

The results were at first hailed as a great achievement in peacemaking and stabilization. However, most of the participants were not fully satisfied, and grievances regarding the results festered until they exploded into World War in 1914. Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece made gains, but far less than they thought they deserved. The Ottoman Empire, called at the time the "sick man of Europe," was humiliated and significantly weakened, rendering it more liable to domestic unrest and more vulnerable to attack. Although Russia had been victorious in the war that caused the conference, it was humiliated at Berlin, and resented its treatment. The Habsburg Empire gained a great deal of territory, which angered the South Slavs, and led to decades of tensions in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bismarck became the target of hatred of Russian nationalists and Pan-Slavists, and found that he had tied Germany too closely to the Habsburg presence in the Balkans.

In the long-run, tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans. The congress was aimed at the revision of the Treaty of San Stefano and at keeping Constantinople in Ottoman hands. It effectively disavowed Russia's victory over the decaying Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War. The Congress of Berlin returned to the Ottoman Empire territories that the previous treaty had given to the Principality of Bulgaria, most notably Macedonia, thus setting up a strong revanchist demand in Bulgaria that in 1912 was one of many causes of the First Balkan War.

بلقان جي 20هين صدي جي تاريخ

بلقان جا روايتي لباس، لڳ ڀڳ 1905ع جي چوڌاري

بلقان جزيري نما جو 1914ع جو نسلي نقشو

بلقان جنگيون

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو بلقان جنگيون

ڪلڪس-لاخاناس جي جنگ جو هڪ يوناني ليٿوگراف

بلقان جنگيون ٻہ جنگيون هيون جيڪيون سال 1912ع ۽ 1913ع ۾ بلقان ۾ ٿيون. چار بلقان رياستن پهرين جنگ ۾ عثماني سلطنت کي شڪست ڏني؛ چئن مان هڪ، بلغاريا، ٻي جنگ ۾ شڪست کاڌي. عثماني سلطنت يورپ ۾ تقريبن سڀئي پنهنجي قبضي وڃائي ڇڏيو. آسٽريا-هنگري، جيتوڻيڪ جنگجو نه هو، پر ڪمزور ٿي ويو ڇاڪاڻ ته هڪ تمام وڏو سربيا ڏکڻ سلاويڪ ماڻهن جي اتحاد لاءِ زور ڏنو. جنگ 1914ع جي بلقان بحران لاءِ اسٽيج مقرر ڪئي ۽ اهڙي طرح "پهرين مهاڀاري جنگ جو آغاز" هو.

پهرين مهاڀاري جنگ

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو بلقان مهم (پهرين مهاڀاري جنگ)

سال 1914ع ۾ جنگ جو آغاز

پهرين مهاڀاري جنگ بلقان ۾ هڪ چنگاري مان ڀڙڪي پئي، جڏهن گيوريلو پرنسپ نالي هڪ بوسنيائي سرب آسٽريائي تخت جي وارث، فرانز فرڊيننڊ کي قتل ڪري ڇڏيو. پرنسيپ سربيا جي هڪ خفيه فوجي سوسائٽي، جن کي "ڪرنا روڪا" (سربيا لاء "بليڪ هينڊ") سڏيو ويندو هو، جو ميمبر هو. قتل کان پوءِ، آسٽريا-هنگري جولاءِ 1914ع ۾ سربيا کي الٽي ميٽم موڪليو جن ۾ ڪيتريون ئي شرطون شامل هيون جيڪي وڏي حد تائين سربيا جي تعميل کي روڪڻ لاءِ ٺهيل هيون. جڏهن ته سربيا صرف جزوي طور تي الٽي ميٽم جي شرطن کي پورو ڪيو، آسٽريا-هنگري 28 جولاءِ 1914ع تي سربيا جي خلاف جنگ جو اعلان ڪيو.

آسٽرو-هنگري حڪومت جي ڪيترن ئي ميمبرن، جهڙوڪ ڪونراڊ وون هٽزينڊورف ڪيترن سالن تائين سربيا سان جنگ کي ڀڙڪائڻ جي اميد ڪئي هئي. انهن جا ڪجهه مقصد هئا. جزوي طور تي اهي سربيا جي طاقت ۽ سلطنت جي "ڏکڻ-سلاف" صوبن ۾ "وڏي سلاف رياست" جي جهنڊي هيٺ اختلاف ۽ خلل پوکڻ جي صلاحيت کان ڊڄندا هئا. هڪ ٻي اميد اها هئي ته اهي سلطنت جي نسلي جوڙجڪ کي تبديل ڪرڻ لاءِ سربيا جي علائقن کي ملائي سگهن ٿا. سلطنت ۾ وڌيڪ سلاف سان، حڪومت جي جرمن تسلط واري اڌ ۾ ڪجهه ماڻهن کي اميد هئي ته ميگيار جي تسلط واري هنگري حڪومت جي طاقت کي متوازن ڪري سگهندا. 1914ع تائين وڌيڪ پرامن عنصر انهن فوجي حڪمت عملين جي خلاف، يا ته اسٽريٽجڪ غورن ذريعي يا سياسي ذريعي، بحث ڪرڻ جي قابل هئا. بهرحال، فرانز فرڊيننڊ، هڪ پرامن حل جو هڪ اهم وڪيل، منظر تان هٽايو ويو هو ۽ وڌيڪ هاڪ عنصر غالب ٿيڻ جي قابل ٿي ويا. ان ۾ هڪ ٻيو عنصر جرمني ۾ ترقي هئي جيڪا ٻٽي بادشاهت کي هڪ فوجي حڪمت عملي تي عمل ڪرڻ لاءِ "خالي چيڪ" ڏئي ٿي جيڪا جرمني جي پٺڀرائي کي يقيني بڻائي ٿي.

Austro-Hungarian planning for operations against Serbia was not extensive and they ran into many logistical difficulties in mobilizing the army and beginning operations against the Serbs. They encountered problems with train schedules and mobilization schedules, which conflicted with agricultural cycles in some areas. When operations began in early August Austria-Hungary was unable to crush the Serbian armies as many within the monarchy had predicted. One difficulty for the Austro-Hungarians was that they had to divert many divisions north to counter advancing Russian armies. Planning for operations against Serbia had not accounted for possible Russian intervention, which the Austro-Hungarian army had assumed would be countered by Germany. However, the German army had long planned on attacking France before turning to Russia given a war with the Entente powers. (See: Schlieffen Plan) Poor communication between the two governments led to this catastrophic oversight.

Fighting in 1914

As a result, Austria-Hungary's war effort was damaged almost beyond redemption within a couple of months of the war beginning. The Serb army, which was coming up from the south of the country, met the Austrian army at the Battle of Cer beginning on 12 August 1914.

The Serbians were set up in defensive positions against the Austro-Hungarians. The first attack came on 16 August, between parts of the 21st Austro-Hungarian division and parts of the Serbian Combined division. In harsh night-time fighting, the battle ebbed and flowed, until the Serbian line was rallied under the leadership of Stepa Stepanovic. Three days later the Austrians retreated across the Danube, having suffered 21,000 casualties against 16,000 Serbian casualties. This marked the first Allied victory of the war. The Austrians had not achieved their main goal of eliminating Serbia. In the next couple of months the two armies fought large battles at Drina (6 September to 11 November) and at Kolubara from 16 November to 15 December.

In the autumn, with many Austro-Hungarians tied up in heavy fighting with Serbia, Russia was able to make huge inroads into Austria-Hungary capturing Galicia and destroying much of the Empire's fighting ability. It wasn't until October 1915 with a lot of German, Bulgarian, and Turkish assistance that Serbia was finally occupied, although the weakened Serbian army retreated to Corfu with Italian assistance and continued to fight against the central powers.

Yugoslav Committee, a political interest group formed by South Slavs from Austria-Hungary during World War I, aimed at joining the existing south Slavic nations in an independent state. From this plan, a new kingdom eventually was born: The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenians.

Montenegro declared war on 6 August 1914. Bulgaria, however, stood aside before eventually joining the Central Powers in 1915, and Romania joined the Allies in 1916. In 1916 the Allies sent their ill-fated expedition to Gallipoli in the Dardanelles, and in the autumn of 1916 they established themselves in Salonika, establishing front. However, their armies did not move from front until near end of the war, when they marched up north to free territories under rule of Central Powers.

Bulgaria

پڻ ڏسو: Bulgaria during World War I

Bulgaria, the most populous of the Balkan states with 7 million people sought to acquire Macedonia but when it tried it was defeated in 1913 in the Second Balkan War. In 1914 Bulgaria stayed neutral. However its leaders still hoped to acquire Macedonia, which was controlled by an ally, Serbia. In 1915 joining the Central Powers seemed the best route. Bulgaria mobilized a very large army of 800,000 men, using equipment supplied by Germany. The Bulgarian-German-Austrian invasion of Serbia in 1915 was a quick victory, but by the end of 1915 Bulgaria was also fighting the British and French—as well as the Romanians in 1916 and the Greeks in 1917. Bulgaria was ill-prepared for a long war; absence of so many soldiers sharply reduced agricultural output. Much of its best food was smuggled out to feed lucrative black markets elsewhere.

By 1918 the soldiers were not only short of basic equipment like boots but they were being fed mostly corn bread with a little meat. Germany increasingly was in control, and Bulgarian relations with its ally the Ottoman Empire soured. The Allied offensive in September 1918, which failed in 1916 & 1917 was successful at Dobro Pole. Troops mutinied and peasants revolted, demanding peace. By month's end Bulgaria signed an armistice, giving up its conquests and its military hardware. The Czar abdicated and Bulgaria's war was over. The peace treaty in 1919 stripped Bulgaria of its conquests, reduced its army to 20,000 men, and demanded reparations of £100 million.

Consequences of World War I

Political history of the Balkans

The war had enormous repercussions for the Balkan peninsula. People across the area suffered serious economic dislocation, and the mass mobilization resulted in severe casualties, particularly in Serbia where over 1.5 million Serbs died, which was approx. ¼ of the total population and over half of the male population. In less-developed areas World War I was felt in different ways: requisitioning of draft animals, for example, caused severe problems in villages that were already suffering from the enlistment of young men, and many recently created trade connections were ruined.

The borders of many states were completely redrawn, and the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, later Yugoslavia, was created. Both Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire were formally dissolved. As a result, the balance of power, economic relations, and ethnic divisions were completely altered.

Some important territorial changes include:

• The addition of Transylvania and Eastern Banat to Romania
• The incorporation of Serbia, Montenegro, Slavonia, Croatia, Vojvodina, Carniola, part of Styria, most of Dalmatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.
• Istria, Zadar, and Trieste became part of Italy,

Between World War I and World War II, in order to create nation-states the following population movements were seen:

• In the interwar period, almost 1.5 million Greeks were removed from Turkey; almost 700,000 Turks removed from Greece
• The 1919 Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine provided for the reciprocal emigration of ethnic minorities between Greece and Bulgaria. Between 92,000 and 102,000 Bulgarians were removed from Greece; 35,000 Greeks were removed from Bulgaria. Although no agreement on exchange of population between Bulgaria and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was ever reached because of the latter's adamant refusal to recognise any Bulgarian minority in its eastern regions, the number of refugees from Macedonia and Eastern Serbia to Bulgaria also exceeded 100,000. Between the two world wars, some 67,000 Turks emigrated from Bulgaria to Turkey on basis of bilateral agreements.
• Under the terms of 1940 Treaty of Craiova, 88,000 Romanians and Aromanians of Southern Dobruja were forced to move in Northern Dobruja and 65,000 Bulgarians of Northern Dobruja were forced to move in Southern Dobruja.

See also:

• Treaty of Trianon
• Little Entente
• League of Nations
• Aftermath of World War I
• Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) with an estimate of 250,000 casualties.

World War II

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Balkans campaign (World War II)

پڻ ڏسو: Yugoslav Partisans

World War II in the Balkans started from the Italian attempts to create an Italian empire. They invaded Albania in 1939 and annexed after just a week to the Kingdom of Italy. Then demanded Greece to surrender in October 1940. However, the defiance of the Greek prime minister Metaxas on 28 October 1940, started the Greco-Italian War. After seven months of hard fighting, with some of the first Allied victories and the Italians losing nearly one third of Albania, Germany intervened to save its ally. In 1941, it invaded Yugoslavia with the forces they later used against the Soviet Union.

After the fall of Sarajevo on 16 April 1941 to Nazi Germany, the Yugoslav provinces of Croatia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina were recreated as fascist satellite states, Nezavisna Država Hrvatska (NDH, the Independent State of Croatia). Croat-nationalist, Ante Pavelić was appointed leader. The Nazis effectively created the Handschar division and collaborated with Ustaše in order to combat the Yugoslav Partisans.

With help from Italy, they succeeded in conquering Yugoslavia within two weeks. They then joined forces with Bulgaria and invaded Greece from the Yugoslavian side. Despite Greek resistance, the Germans took advantage of the Greek army's presence in Albania against the Italians to advance in Northern Greece and consequently conquer the entire country within 3 weeks, with the exception of Crete. However, even with the fierce Cretan resistance, which cost the Nazis the bulk of their elite paratrooper forces, the island capitulated after 11 days of fighting.

On 1 May the Balkan frontiers were once again reshuffled, with the creation of several puppet states, such as Croatia and Montenegro, the Albanian expansion into Greece and Yugoslavia, Bulgarian annexation of territories in the Greek North, creation of a Vlach state in the Greek mountains of Pindus and the annexation of all the Ionian and part of the Aegean islands into Italy.

With the end of the war, the changes of the ethnic composition reverted to their original conditions and the settlers returned to their homelands, mainly the ones settled in Greece. An Albanian population of the Greek North, the Cams, were forced to flee their lands because they collaborated with the Italians. Their numbers were about 18 000 in 1944.

Aftermath of World War II

On 7–9 January 1945 Yugoslav authorities killed several hundred of declared Bulgarians in Macedonia as collaborators, in an event known as the "Bloody Christmas".

The Greek Civil War was fought between 1944 and 1949 in Greece between the armed forces of the Greek government, supported at first by Britain and later by the United States, against the forces of the wartime resistance against the German occupation, whose leadership was controlled by the Communist Party of Greece. Its goal was the creation of a Communist Northern Greece. It was the first time in the Cold War that hostilities led to a proxy war. In 1949, the partisans were defeated by the government forces.

Cold War

During the Cold War, most of the countries in the Balkans were ruled by Soviet-supported communist governments.

However, despite being under communist governments, Yugoslavia (1948) and Albania (1961) fell out with the Soviet Union. After World War 2, communist plans of merging Albania and Bulgaria into Yugoslavia were created, but later nullified when Albania broke all relations with Yugoslavia, due to Tito breaking from the USSR. Marshal Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980), later rejected the idea of merging with Bulgaria, and instead sought closer relations with the West, later even creating the Non-Aligned Movement, which brought them closer ties with third world countries. Albania on the other hand gravitated toward Communist China, later adopting an isolationist position. The only non-communist countries were Greece and Turkey, which were (and still are) part of NATO.

The nationalism was not dead during this period. For example: in Bulgaria, beginning in 1984, the Communist government led by Todor Zhivkov began implementing a policy of forced assimilation of the ethnic Turkish minority. Ethnic Turks were required to change their names to Bulgarian equivalents, or to leave the country. In 1989, a Turkish dissident movement was formed to resist these assimilationist measures. The Bulgarian government responded with violence and mass expulsions of the activists. In this repressive environment, over 300,000 ethnic Turks fled to neighboring Turkey.

Religious persecutions took place in Bulgaria, directed against the Christian Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant churches as well as the Muslim, Jewish and others in the country. Antagonism between the communist state and the Bulgarian Orthodox Church eased somewhat after Todor Zhivkov became Bulgarian Communist Party leader in 1956 for "its historic role in helping preserve Bulgarian nationalism and culture".

Post-Communism

The late 1980s and the early 1990s brought the collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe. As westernization spread through the Balkans, many reforms were carried out that led to implementation of market economy and to privatization, among other capitalist reforms. In Albania, Bulgaria and Romania the changes in political and economic system were accompanied by a period of political and economic instability and tragic events. The same was the case in most of former Yugoslav republics.

Yugoslav wars

اصل مضمون جي لاءِ ڏسو Yugoslav Wars

The collapse of the Yugoslav federation was due to various factors in various republics that comprised it. In Serbia and Montenegro, there were efforts of different factions of the old party elite to retain power under new conditions along, and an attempt to create Greater Serbia by keeping all Serbs in one state. In Croatia and Slovenia, multi-party elections produced nationally inclined leadership that followed in the footsteps of their previous Communist predecessors and oriented itself towards capitalism and secession. Bosnia and Herzegovina was split between the conflicting interests of its Serbs, Croats, and Bosniaks, while Macedonia mostly tried to steer away from conflicting situations.

An outbreak of violence and aggression came as a consequence of unresolved national, political and economic questions. The conflicts caused the death of many civilians. The real start of the war was a military attack on Slovenia and Croatia taken by Serb-controlled JNA. Before the war, JNA had started accepting volunteers driven by ideology of Serbian nationalists keen to realise their nationalist goals.

The Ten-Day War in Slovenia in June 1991 was short and with few casualties. However, the Croatian War of Independence in the latter half of 1991 brought many casualties and much damage on Croatian towns. As the war eventually subsided in Croatia, the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina started in early 1992. Peace only came in 1995 after such events as the Srebrenica massacre, Operation Storm, Operation Mistral 2 and the Dayton Agreement, which provided for a temporary solution, but nothing was permanently resolved.

The economy suffered an enormous damage in all of Bosnia and Herzegovina and in the affected parts of Croatia. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia also suffered an economic hardship under internationally imposed economic sanctions. Many large historical cities were also devastated by the wars, for example Sarajevo, Dubrovnik, Zadar, Mostar, Šibenik and others.

The wars caused large population migrations, mostly involuntary. With the exception of its former republics of Slovenia and Macedonia, the settlement and the national composition of population in all parts of Yugoslavia changed drastically, due to war, but also political pressure and threats. Because it was a conflict fueled by ethnic nationalism, people of minority ethnicities generally fled towards regions where their ethnicity was in a majority. Since the Bosniaks had no immediate refuge, they were arguably hardest hit by the ethnic violence. The United Nations tried to create safe areas for the Bosniak populations of eastern Bosnia but in cases such as the Srebrenica massacre, the peacekeeping troops (Dutch forces) failed to protect the safe areas resulting in the massacre of thousands. The Dayton Accords ended the war in Bosnia, fixating the borders between the warring parties roughly to the ones established by the autumn of 1995. One immediate result of population transfers following the peace deal was a sharp decline in ethnic violence in the region. A number of commanders and politicians, notably Serbia's former president Slobodan Milošević, were put on trial by the United Nations' International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia for a variety of war crimes—including deportations and genocide that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo. Croatia's former president Franjo Tuđman and Bosnia's Alija Izetbegović died before any alleged accusations were leveled at them at the ICTY. Slobodan Milošević died before his trial could be concluded.

Initial upsets on Kosovo did not escalate into a war until 1999 when the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) was bombarded by NATO for 78 days with Kosovo being made a protectorate of international peacekeeping troops. A massive and systematic deportation^{[حوالو گهربل]} of ethnic Albanians took place during the Kosovo War of 1999, with over one million Albanians (out of a population of about 1.8 million) forced to flee Kosovo. This was quickly reversed from the aftermath.

ثقافتي تاريخ

• الباني ثقافت. ڪوسوو جي ثقافت. بازنطيني ثقافت. بلغاري ثقافت. سربيائي ثقافت. عثماني ثقافت. مشرقي آرٿوڊوڪس. مکيه مضمون: مشرقي آرٿوڊوڪس چرچ.

پڻ ڏسو

• البانيا جي تاريخ
• بوسنيا ۽ هرزيگوينا جي تاريخ
• بلغاريا جي تاريخ
• ڪروشيا جي تاريخ
• يونان جي تاريخ
• هنگري جي تاريخ
• ڪوسووو جي تاريخ
• اتر مقدونيا جي تاريخ
• مولڊووا جي تاريخ
• مونٽينيگرو جي تاريخ
• وينس جي جمهوريه
• رومانيا جي تاريخ
• سربيا جي تاريخ
• سلووينيا جي تاريخ
• ترڪي جي تاريخ
• يوگوسلاويا
• يورپ جي تاريخ
• مشرقي آرٿوڊوڪس چرچ
• بلقان جزيري نما جا تاريخي علائقا
• عثماني سلطنت
• روسي سلطنت
• سلطنتن جي فهرست

ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا

• Moravcsik, Gyula, ed (1967). Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio (2nd revised ed.). Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. ISBN 978-0-88402-021-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=3al15wpFWiMC. 
• Scholz, Bernhard Walter, ed (1970). Carolingian Chronicles: Royal Frankish Annals and Nithard's Histories. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-06186-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=sTzl6wFjehMC.