مواد ڏانھن هلو

ايران جي تاريخ

کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
چٽان تي نقش ٿيل "نقش رستم" جي رليف. ايراني شهنشاه شاپور اول (گهوڙي تي) رومي شهنشاه ويلرن (گوڏن ڀر) ۽ فلپ عرب (بيٺل) کي قيد ڪندي.
چانديءَ جي پيالي تي شڪار جو منظر، خسرو اول کي ڏيکاريندي.

ايران جي تاريخ وڏي ايران (Greater Iran)، هڪ اهڙو علائقو جنهن ۾ اها سڀئي علائقا شامل هئا جن ۾ ايراني ماڻهن ۽ ايراني ٻولين، خاص طور تي فارسي ۽ فارسي ٻولي جي اهم آبادڪاري يا اثر ڏٺو آهي، سان جڙيل آهي. هن علائقي جو مرڪز ايراني سطح مرتفع آهي، جيڪا هاڻي جديد ايران سان ڍڪيل آهي. ايراني تاريخ جو سڀ کان وڌيڪ واضح اثر اولهه ۾ اناطوليا کان اوڀر ۾ سنڌو ماٿري تائين پکڙيل ڏسي سگهجي ٿو، جنهن ۾ سر زمين شام، ميسوپوٽيميا، قفقاز ۽ وچ ايشيا جي اڪثريت شامل آهي. اهو ٻين وڏين تهذيبن، جهڙوڪ هندستان، چين، يونان، روم ۽ مصر جي تاريخن سان پڻ ڳنڍيل آهي.

ايران دنيا جي قديم ترين مسلسل تهذيبن مان هڪ جو گهر آهي، جنهن ۾ تاريخي ۽ شهري آباديون 5هين صدي قبل مسيح جون آهن. ايراني پليٽيو جا اولهه وارا علائقن ۾ ايلامائيٽائي، ڪاسائي، گوتيائي، يوريشيائي[1] [2]۽ ڪردستان ۾ منيئن جا گهر هئا.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9] ايراني سلطنت لوھه جي دور ۾ ميد سلطنت جي عروج سان شروع ٿي، جڏھن ايران 7هين صدي قبل مسيح ۾ ميدي سلطنت جي تحت ھڪ قوم جي طور تي متحد ٿي ويو.[10] 550 قبل مسيح تائين، ميد سائرس اعظم جي فتحن کان پاسيرو ٿي ويا. جنھن ھخامنشي سلطنت جي قيام سان فارسين کي اقتدار ۾ آندو. سائرس جي ايندڙ مهمن فارس جي گھڻي ڀاڱي اولهائين ايشيا ۽ گھڻي ڀاڱي وچ ايشيا ۾ واڌ کي ممڪن بڻايو ۽ سندس جانشين ڏکڻ اوڀر يورپ ۽ اتر آفريڪا جي ڪجھ حصن کي فتح ڪري سڀ کان وڏي سلطنت جي صدارت ڪيا. چوٿين صدي قبل مسيح ۾، ھخامنشي سلطنت کي سڪندر اعظم جي مقدوني سلطنت فتح ڪيو، جنھن جي موت اڳوڻي ھخامنشي علائقي جي وڏي حصي تي سليوسي سلطنت جي قيام جو سبب بني. ايندڙ صدين ۾، ايراني پليٽيو تي يوناني حڪمراني پارٿيئن سلطنت جي عروج سان ختم ٿي وئي، جنھن سليوسي جي اناطوليا، ميسوپوٽيميا ۽ وچ ايشيائي قبضي جي وڏي حصي کي فتح ڪيو. جڏهن ته پارٿين جي جاءِ تي ٻي صدي ۾ ساساني سلطنت آئي، ايران ايندڙ هزار سال تائين هڪ اڳواڻي ڪندڙ طاقت رهيو، جيتوڻيڪ هن دور جو گهڻو حصو رومن-فارسي جنگين جي ڪري نشان لڳل هو.

ستين صدي ۾، فارس تي مسلمانن جي فتح جي نتيجي ۾ ساساني سلطنت جو راشدين خلافت سان الحاق ٿيو ۽ ايران جي اسلام جي شروعات ٿي. غير ملڪي طاقتن، جهڙوڪ يوناني، عرب، ترڪ ۽ منگولن جي حملي جي باوجود، ايراني قومي سڃاڻپ محفوظ رهي، جيڪا ان کي هڪ الڳ سياسي ۽ ثقافتي وجود جي طور تي ترقي ڪرڻ جي اجازت ڏني ۽ ان جي حملي آورن کي متاثر ڪيو. جڏهن ته ابتدائي اسلامي فتحون زرتشتي مذهب، جيڪو ايران جو اڪثريتي مذهب هو، جي زوال جو سبب بڻيون. ايراني تهذيبن جون ڪاميابيون نئين اسلامي سلطنتن ۾ جذب ​​ٿي ويون ۽ اسلامي سونهري دور دوران ان کي وڌايو ويو.[11] خانہ بدوش ترڪ قبيلن وچين دور جي آخر ۽ جديد دور جي شروعات ۾ ايراني سطح مرتفع جي ڪجهه حصن تي قبضو ڪيو علائقي تي منفي اثر پيو. بهرحال، 1501 تائين قوم کي صفوي خاندان پاران ٻيهر متحد ڪيو ويو.[12] جنهن ايران کي شيعه اسلام ۾ تبديل ڪندي اصل مسلمان فتح کان وٺي ايراني تاريخ جي سڀ کان اهم مذهبي تبديلي جي شروعات ڪئي. [13] ايران ٻيهر عالمي طاقت طور خاص طور تي عثماني سلطنت سان مقابلي ۾ اڀريو. 19 صدي ۾ ايران روسي سلطنت سان تڪرار ۾ آيو. جنهن روس-فارسي جنگين جي آخر تائين ڏکڻ قفقاز کي ملائي ڇڏيو.[14]

1940 جي ڏهاڪي ۾ اميد هئي ته ايران هڪ آئيني بادشاهت بڻجي سگهي ٿو. پر آمريڪا ۽ برطانيه جي مدد سان 1953 جي بغاوت چونڊيل وزيراعظم کي هٽايو ۽ ايران تي آمريڪي مدد سان شاهه جي سربراهي ۾ هڪ آمريت جي طور تي حڪومت ڪئي وئي. بادشاهت 1979 ۾ ايراني انقلاب تائين برقرار رهي جڏهن ملڪ کي اسلامي جمهوريه قرار ڏنو ويو.[15][16] ان کان وٺي ان ۾ اهم سياسي، سماجي ۽ معاشي تبديليون آيون آهن. اسلامي جمهوريه جي قيام سان ملڪ جي سياسي نظام جي ٻيهر جوڙجڪ ٿي. ايران جا پرڏيهي لاڳاپا ايران-عراق جنگ کان شروع ٿي ۽ ڪيترن ئي عرب ملڪن تائين جاري رهيو علائقائي تڪرارن جي شڪل اختيار ڪري چڪا آهن. اسرائيل، آمريڪا ۽ مغربي دنيا سان جاري تڪرار ۽ ايراني ايٽمي پروگرام جيڪو بين الاقوامي سفارتڪاري ۾ تڪراري رهيو آهي. بين الاقوامي پابندين ۽ اندروني چئلينجن جي باوجود ايران علائقائي ۽ عالمي جيوپولٽيڪس ۾ هڪ اهم رانديگر رهي ٿو.

تاريخ کان اڳ

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قديم پٿر جو دور

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ايران ۾ سڀ کان قديم آثار قديمه جا نمونا ڪشف رود ۽ گنج پار جي جڳهن مان مليا آهن جيڪي 1,00,000 سال اڳ وچين پٿر جي دور جا آهن.[17] نيندرٿلز پاران ٺاهيل پٿر جا اوزار پڻ مليا آهن.[18] وچين پيليوليٿڪ دور سان تعلق رکندڙ نيندرٿلز جا وڌيڪ ثقافتي آثار آهن، جيڪي خاص طور تي زگروس علائقي ۾ (مرڪزي ايران ۾ گهٽ) ڪوبه، ڪنجي، بسيتون غار، تمتما، واروسي ۽ يفته غار جهڙن هنڌن تي مليا آهن.[19] 1949 ۾، ڪارلٽن ايس ڪون پاران بسيتون غار ۾ نيندرٿل جا باقيات دريافت ڪيا ويا.[20] اپر پيليوليٿڪ ۽ ايپي پيليوليٿڪ دورن جا ثبوت خاص طور تي ڪرمانشاهه ۽ خرم آباد جي غارن ۾ زگروس جبلن ۽ پيرانشهر، البرز ۽ وچ ايران ۾ ڪجهه هنڌن تان معلوم ٿين ٿا. هن عرصي دوران، ماڻهن ايران ۾ پٿر جي فن ٺاهڻ شروع ڪيو.[21][22]

نئين پٿر جي دور کان ٽامي جي دور

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11هين صدي قبل مسيح ۾ چوغا گولان جهڙيون ابتدائي زرعي[23] برادريون ۽ 9هين صدي قبل مسيح ۾ چوغا بونت [24](ايلام جو سڀ کان قديم ڳوٺ) جهڙيون آباديون زگروس جبلن ۾ ۽ ان جي چوڌاري وڌڻ لڳيون.[25] تقريبن ساڳئي وقت، گنج دره ۾ قديم ترين ڄاتل سڃاتل مٽيءَ جا برتن ۽ ماڊل ٿيل انساني ۽ جانورن جا ٽيراڪوٽا مجسما پيدا ڪيا ويا. [26] ڪرمانشاه صوبي ۾ ٽيپي سراب مان 10,000 سال پراڻا انساني ۽ جانورن جا مجسما ٻين ڪيترن ئي قديم نوادرات جي وچ ۾ موجود آهن.[27]

ايران جو ڏکڻ-اولهه حصو زرخيز چنڊ جو حصو هو جتي انسانيت جي پهرين وڏين فصلن مان گھڻا پوکيا ويندا هئا، سوسا جهڙن ڳوٺن ۾ (جتي هڪ آبادڪاري پهريون ڀيرو ممڪن طور تي 4395 قبل مسيح جي شروعات ۾ قائم ڪئي وئي هئي) ۽ چوغا مش جهڙيون آباديون،[28] [29] جيڪي 6800 قبل مسيح جون آهن؛ زگروس جبلن ۾ کوٽيل 7,000 سال پراڻي شراب جا ٿانوَ مليا آهن (هاڻي پينسلوانيا يونيورسٽي ۾ نمائش لاءِ آهن)[24] ۽ 7,000 سال پراڻين آبادين جا کنڊر جهڙوڪ ٽيپي سيالڪ ان جو وڌيڪ ثبوت آهن. ٻه مکيه نيوليٿڪ ايراني آباديون گنج دره ۽ فرضي زائنده درياءَ جي ثقافت هيون.[30]

برونز ايج:

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ايران جي گوا ٽيپي مان 2 ملينيم قبل مسيح جو منظر رکندڙ سلنڈر
چوغا زنبيل ميسوپوٽيميا کان ٻاهر موجود ڪجهه زگورات مان هڪ آهي ۽ دنيا ۾ بهترين محفوظ مثال سمجهيو ويندو آهي.

ڪورا-اراڪسس ڪلچر (تقريبن 3400 ق.م- 2000 ق.م) اتر اولهه ايران کان وٺي قفقاز ۽ اناطوليا جي پاڙيسري علائقن تائين پکڙيل هو. سوسا ايران ۽ دنيا جي قديم ترين ڄاتل سڃاتل آبادين مان هڪ آهي. آثار قديمه جي ماهرن ۾ عام خيال اهو آهي ته. سوسا سومري شهر رياست اروڪ جو هڪ واڌارو هو. تنهن ڪري ميسوپوٽيميا جي ثقافت جي ڪيترن ئي پهلوئن کي شامل ڪيو ويو. ان جي بعد جي تاريخ ۾. سوسا ايلام جو گاديءَ جو هنڌ بڻجي ويو. جيڪو 4000 ق.م ۾ قائم ٿيل هڪ رياست جي طور تي ابھريو. ايراني پليٽ فارم تي درجنين پراگاڻيڪ سائيٽون پڻ آهن جيڪي چوٿين ملينيم قبل مسيح ۾ قديم ثقافتن ۽ شهري آبادين جي وجود جي نشاندهي ڪن ٿيون. ايراني پليٽ فارم تي ابتدائي تهذيبن مان هڪ ڪرمان صوبي ۾ ڏکڻ اوڀر ايران ۾ جيروفٽ ڪلچر هو.

ايران اولهه ايشيا ۾ سڀ کان وڌيڪ نوادرات سان مالا مال آثار قديمه وارن هنڌن مان هڪ آهي. جيروفٽ ۾ آثار قديمه جي کوٽائي جي نتيجي ۾ چوٿين صدي قبل مسيح سان تعلق رکندڙ ڪيتريون ئي شيون دريافت ٿيون. اتي جانورن، افسانوي شخصيتن ۽ تعميراتي نقشن جي انتهائي مخصوص نقاشي سان سينگاريل شيون وڏي مقدار ۾ آهن. شيون ۽ انهن جي علامت نگاري کي منفرد سمجهيو ويندو آهي. ڪيتريون ئي ڪلورائيٽ، هڪ گرين-سائي نرم پٿر مان ٺهيل آهن؛ ٻيا ٽامي، ڪانسي، ٽيراڪوٽا، ۽ حتي لاپيس لازولي ۾ آهن. سائيٽن تي تازين کوٽائي دنيا جي قديم ترين لکت پيدا ڪئي آهي جيڪا ميسوپوٽيميا جي لکت کان اڳ جي تاريخ آهي.[31]

ابتدائي لوهه جي دور ۾ ايراني ماڻهن جي ظهور کان اڳ ايراني پليٽ فارم تي ڪيتريون ئي ٻيون قديم تهذيبون جا رڪارڊ موجود آهن. ابتدائي ڪانسي جي دور ۾ منظم شهري رياستن ۾ شهري آباديءَ جو عروج ۽ ويجهو اوڀر ۾ لکڻ جي ايجاد (يوروڪ دور) ڏٺي وئي. جڏهن ته ڪانسي جي دور ۾ ايلام شروعاتي وقت کان لکڻ جو استعمال ڪيو، پروٽو-ايلامائيٽ رسم الخط اڻ پڙهيل رهي ٿو، ۽ سمير کان ايلام بابت رڪارڊ گهٽ آهن.

روسي تاريخدان ايگور ايم. ڊياڪونوف جو چوڻ آهي ته ايران جا جديد رهواسي بنيادي طور تي غير هند-يورپي گروهن جي اولاد آهن، خاص طور تي ايراني پليٽو جي ايران کان اڳ جي رهاڪن جي.


Kura–Araxes culture (circa 3400 BC—ca. 2000 BC) stretched from northwestern Iran up into the neighbouring regions of the Caucasus and Anatolia.[32][33] Susa is one of the oldest-known settlements of Iran and the world. The general perception among archaeologists is that Susa was an extension of the Sumerian city-state of Uruk, hence incorporating many aspects of Mesopotamian culture.[34][35][صفحو گهربل] In its later history, Susa became the capital of Elam, which emerged as a state founded 4000 BC.[36] There are also dozens of prehistoric sites across the Iranian plateau pointing to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the fourth millennium BC.[37] One of the earliest civilizations on the Iranian plateau was the Jiroft culture in southeastern Iran in the province of Kerman.

Iran is one of the most artefact-rich archaeological sites in West Asia. Archaeological excavations in Jiroft led to the discovery of several objects belonging to the 4th millennium BC.[38] There is a large quantity of objects decorated with highly distinctive engravings of animals, mythological figures, and architectural motifs. The objects and their iconography are considered unique. Many are made from chlorite, a grey-green soft stone; others are in copper, bronze, terracotta, and even lapis lazuli. Recent excavations at the sites have produced the world's earliest inscription which pre-dates Mesopotamian inscriptions.[39]

Early Iron Age

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Rhyton in the shape of a ram's head, gold – Saqqez - Kurdistan - western Iran[3] –, late 7th–early 6th century BCE
A gold cup at the National Museum of Iran, from the first half of the 1st millennium BC

Records become more tangible with the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and its records of incursions from the Iranian plateau. As early as the 20th century BC, tribes came to the Iranian plateau from the Pontic–Caspian steppe. The arrival of Iranians on the Iranian plateau forced the Elamites to relinquish one area of their empire after another and to take refuge in Elam, Khuzestan and the nearby area, which only then became coterminous with Elam.[40] Bahman Firuzmandi says that the southern Iranians might be intermixed with the Elamite peoples living in the plateau.[41] By the mid-1st millennium BC, Medes, Persians, and Parthians populated the Iranian plateau. Until the rise of the Medes, they all remained under Assyrian domination, like the rest of the Near East. In the first half of the 1st millennium BC, parts of what is now Iranian Azerbaijan were incorporated into Urartu.

قديم دور

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Median and Achaemenid Empires (678–330 BC)

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اصل مضمون/مضمونن جي لاءِ ڏسو Median kingdom ۽ Achaemenid Empire

In 646 BC, Assyrian king Ashurbanipal sacked Susa, which ended Elamite supremacy in the region.[42] For over 150 years Assyrian kings of nearby northern Mesopotamia had been wanting to conquer Median tribes of western Iran.[43] Under pressure from Assyria, the small kingdoms of the western Iranian plateau coalesced into increasingly larger and more centralized states.[42]

The Medes at the time of their maximum expansion

In the second half of the 7th century BC, the Medes gained their independence and were united by Deioces. In 612 BC, Cyaxares, Deioces' grandson, and the Babylonian king Nabopolassar invaded Assyria and laid siege to and eventually destroyed Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, which led to the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.[44] Urartu was later on conquered and dissolved as well by the Medes.[45][46] The Medes are credited with founding Iran as a nation and empire, and established the first Iranian empire, the largest of its day until Cyrus the Great established a unified empire of the Medes and Persians, leading to the Achaemenid Empire (c. 550–330 BC).

The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent

Cyrus the Great overthrew, in turn, the Median, Lydian, and Neo-Babylonian empires, creating an empire far larger than Assyria. He was better able, through more benign policies, to reconcile his subjects to Persian rule; the longevity of his empire was one result. The Persian king, like the Assyrian, was also "King of Kings", xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām (shāhanshāh in modern Persian) – "great king", Megas Basileus, as known by the Greeks.

Cyrus's son, Cambyses II, conquered the last major power of the region, ancient Egypt, causing the collapse of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt. Since he became ill and died before, or while, leaving Egypt, stories developed, as related by Herodotus, that he was struck down for impiety against the ancient Egyptian deities. After the death of Cambyses II, Darius ascended the throne by overthrowing the legitimate Achaemenid monarch Bardiya, and then quelling rebellions throughout his kingdom. As the winner, Darius based his claim on membership in a collateral line of the Achaemenid Empire.

Darius' first capital was at Susa, and he started the building program at Persepolis. He rebuilt a canal between the Nile and the Red Sea, a forerunner of the modern Suez Canal. He improved the extensive road system, and it is during his reign that mentions are first made of the Royal Road (shown on map), a great highway stretching all the way from Susa to Sardis with posting stations at regular intervals. Major reforms took place under Darius. Coinage, in the form of the daric (gold coin) and the shekel (silver coin), was standardized (coinage had been invented over a century before in Lydia c. 660 BC but not standardized),[47] and administrative efficiency increased.

The Old Persian language appears in royal inscriptions, written in a specially adapted version of the cuneiform script. Under Cyrus the Great and Darius, the Persian Empire eventually became the largest empire in human history up until that point, ruling and administrating over most of the known world,[48] as well as spanning the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The greatest achievement was the empire itself. The Persian Empire represented the world's first superpower[49] that was based on a model of tolerance and respect for other cultures and religions.[50]

Map showing key sites during the Persian invasions of Greece.

In the late 6th century BC, Darius launched his European campaign, in which he defeated the Paeonians, conquered Thrace, and subdued all coastal Greek cities, as well as defeating the European Scythians around the Danube river.[51] In 512/511 BC, Macedon became a vassal kingdom of Persia.[51]

In 499 BC, Athens lent support to a revolt in Miletus, which resulted in the sacking of Sardis. This led to an Achaemenid campaign against mainland Greece known as the Greco-Persian Wars, which lasted the first half of the 5th century BC, and is known as one of the most important wars in European history. In the First Persian invasion of Greece, the Persian general Mardonius re-subjugated Thrace and made Macedon a full part of Persia.[51] The war eventually turned out in defeat, however. Darius' successor Xerxes I launched the Second Persian invasion of Greece. At a crucial moment in the war, about half of mainland Greece was overrun by the Persians, including all territories to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth,[52][53] however, this was also turned out in a Greek victory, following the battles of Plataea and Salamis, by which Persia lost its footholds in Europe, and eventually withdrew from it.[54] During the Greco-Persian wars, the Persians gained major territorial advantages. They captured and razed Athens twice, once in 480 BC and again in 479 BC. However, after a string of Greek victories the Persians were forced to withdraw, thus losing control of Macedonia, Thrace and Ionia. Fighting continued for several decades after the successful Greek repelling of the Second Invasion with numerous Greek city-states under the Athens' newly formed Delian League, which eventually ended with the peace of Callias in 449 BC, ending the Greco-Persian Wars. In 404 BC, following the death of Darius II, Egypt rebelled under Amyrtaeus. Later pharaohs successfully resisted Persian attempts to reconquer Egypt until 343 BC, when Egypt was reconquered by Artaxerxes III.

A panoramic view of Persepolis

Greek conquest and Seleucid Empire (312 BC–248 BC)

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The Seleucid Empire in 200 BC, before Antiochus was defeated by the Romans

From 334 BC to 331 BC, Alexander the Great defeated Darius III in the battles of Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela, and conquered the Achaemenid Empire by 331 BC. Alexander's empire broke up shortly after his death, and Alexander's general, Seleucus I Nicator, tried to take control of Iran, Mesopotamia, and later Syria and Anatolia. His empire was the Seleucid Empire. He was killed in 281 BC by Ptolemy Keraunos.

Parthian Empire (248 BC–224 AD)

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Bagadates I, first native Persian ruler after Greek rule

The Parthian Empireسانچو:Emdashruled by the Parthians, a group of northwestern Iranian peopleسانچو:Emdashwas the realm of the Arsacid dynasty. This latter reunited and governed the Iranian plateau after the Parni conquest of Parthia and defeating the Seleucid Empire in the late 3rd century BC. It intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ت. 150 BC and 224 AD and absorbed Eastern Arabia.

Parthia was the eastern arch-enemy of the Roman Empire, and it limited Rome's expansion beyond Cappadocia (central Anatolia). The Parthian armies included two types of cavalry: the heavily armed and armored cataphracts and the lightly armed but highly-mobile mounted archers.

For the Romans, who relied on heavy infantry, the Parthians were too hard to defeat, as both types of cavalry were much faster and more mobile than foot soldiers. The Parthian shot used by the Parthian cavalry was most notably feared by the Roman soldiers, which proved pivotal in the crushing Roman defeat at the Battle of Carrhae. On the other hand, the Parthians found it difficult to occupy conquered areas as they were unskilled in siege warfare. Because of these weaknesses, neither the Romans nor the Parthians were able completely to annex each other's territory.

The Parthian empire subsisted for five centuries, longer than most Eastern Empires. The end of this empire came at last in 224 AD, when the empire's organization had loosened and the last king was defeated by one of the empire's vassal peoples, the Persians under the Sasanians. However, the Arsacid dynasty continued to exist for centuries onwards in Armenia, the Iberia, and the Caucasian Albania, which were all eponymous branches of the dynasty.

Sasanian Empire (224–651 AD)

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Rock-face relief at Naqsh-e Rustam of Iranian emperor Shapur I (on horseback) capturing Roman emperor Valerian (kneeing) and Philip the Arab (standing).
Hunting scene on a gilded silver bowl showing king Khosrau I.

The first shah of the Sasanian Empire, Ardashir I, started reforming the country economically and militarily. For a period of more than 400 years, Iran was once again one of the leading powers in the world, alongside its neighbouring rival, the Roman and then Byzantine Empires.[55][56] The empire's territory, at its height, encompassed all of today's Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Abkhazia, Dagestan, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, Israel, parts of Afghanistan, Turkey, Syria, parts of Pakistan, Central Asia, Eastern Arabia, and parts of Egypt.

Most of the Sasanian Empire's lifespan was overshadowed by the frequent Byzantine–Sasanian wars, a continuation of the Roman–Parthian Wars and the all-comprising Roman–Persian Wars; the last was the longest-lasting conflict in human history. Started in the first century BC by their predecessors, the Parthians, and Romans, the last Roman–Persian War was fought in the seventh century. The Persians defeated the Romans at the Battle of Edessa in 260 and took emperor Valerian prisoner for the remainder of his life. Eastern Arabia was conquered early on. During Khosrow II's rule in 590–628, Egypt, Jordan, Palestine and Lebanon were also annexed to the Empire. The Sassanians called their empire Erânshahr ("Dominion of the Aryans", i.e., of Iranians).[57]

A chapter of Iran's history followed after roughly 600 years of conflict with the Roman Empire. During this time, the Sassanian and Romano-Byzantine armies clashed for influence in Anatolia, the western Caucasus (mainly Lazica and the Kingdom of Iberia; modern-day Georgia and Abkhazia), Mesopotamia, Armenia and the Levant. Under Justinian I, the war came to an uneasy peace with payment of tribute to the Sassanians. However, the Sasanians used the deposition of the Byzantine emperor Maurice as a casus belli to attack the Empire. After many gains, the Sassanians were defeated at Issus, Constantinople, and finally Nineveh, resulting in peace. With the conclusion of the over 700 years lasting Roman–Persian Wars through the climactic Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, which included the very siege of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople, the war-exhausted Persians lost the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah (632) in Hilla (present-day Iraq) to the invading Muslim forces.

The Sasanian era, encompassing the length of Late Antiquity, is considered to be one of the most important and influential historical periods in Iran, and had a major impact on the world. In many ways, the Sassanian period witnessed the highest achievement of Persian civilization and constitutes the last great Iranian Empire before the adoption of Islam. Persia influenced Roman civilization considerably during Sassanian times,[58]سانچو:Incomplete short citation their cultural influence extending far beyond the empire's territorial borders, reaching as far as Western Europe,[59]سانچو:Incomplete short citation Africa,[60] China and India[61] and also playing a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asiatic medieval art.[62]

This influence carried forward to the Muslim world. The dynasty's unique and aristocratic culture transformed the Islamic conquest and destruction of Iran into a Persian Renaissance.[59]سانچو:Incomplete short citation Much of what later became known as Islamic culture, architecture, writing, and other contributions to civilization, were taken from the Sassanian Persians into the broader Muslim world.[63]

Battle between Heraclius' army and Persians under Khosrow II. Fresco by Piero della Francesca, c. 1452.

وچين دور

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جديد دور جو پهريون حصو

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جديد دور جو آخري حصو

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هاڻوڪو دور

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وڌيڪ ڏسو

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نوٽ

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  1. ↑ Pizzorno, Gabriel H. (2014). "Dinkha Tepe Revisited". Harvard University Department of History.
  2. ↑ "Capital of Musasir government in northwest Iran, experts believe". Mehr News Agency. 4 September 2005.
  3. 1 2 Iranica Online - Ziwiye.
  4. ↑ "Qalaichi's ancient necropolis excavated for the first time". The Tehran Times. 23 June 2024.
  5. ↑ Chauhan, Yamini (2012). "Mannai". Britannica.com.
  6. ↑ Cifarelli, Megan; Mollazadeh, Kazem; Binandeh, Ali (2019). "A Decorated Bronze Belt from Gargul, Iran". Iran 57 (2): 175–184. doi:10.1080/05786967.2018.1505441. https://doi.org/10.1080/05786967.2018.1505441.
  7. ↑ Khanmohammadi, Behrouz; Bonfanti, Annarita S.; Dan, Roberto (6 June 2022). "A New Decorated Bronze Belt from Orumiyeh Region, North-Western Iran". Iran 63 (1): 46–56. doi:10.1080/05786967.2022.2082314. https://doi.org/10.1080/05786967.2022.2082314.
  8. ↑ Khanmohammadi, Behrouz; Bonfanti, Annarita S.; Abbaszadeh, Maryam; Dan, Roberto (2021). "A metal belt in the Orumiyeh museum, Iran". Aramazd - Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies 15 (1–2): 163–170. doi:10.32028/ajnes.v15i1-2.1304. https://doi.org/10.32028/ajnes.v15i1-2.1304.
  9. ↑ Amanolahi Sekandar (17 February 2010). "The Lurs of Iran". Cultural Survival.
  10. ↑ Lotha, Gloria; ۽ ٻيا (2024). "Media". Britannica.com.
  11. ↑ Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. ص. 214. ISBN 9781107507180.
  12. ↑ "The Islamic World to 1600 - The Safavid Empire". Applied History Research Group, University of Calgary. 1998. اصل نسخو مان 12 June 2008 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 10 February 2026 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  13. ↑ Houtsma, M.Th.; ۽ ٻيا, مرتب (1993) [1913-1936]. "Ṣafawids". E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam. جلد VII - S-Ṭaiba (reprint ڇاپو). ص. 54-5. ISBN 9789004097933.
  14. ↑ Dowling, Timothy C. (2 December 2014). Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond. 2 volumes. ABC-CLIO. ص. 728–9. ISBN 9781598849479.
  15. ↑ سانچو:Cite EBO
  16. ↑ Afary, Janet (2026). "Iranian Revolution (1978–1979)". Britannica.com.
  17. ↑ حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "Brit_AncientIran".
  18. ↑ Biglari, Fereidoun; Shidrang, Sonia (2019). "Rescuing the Paleolithic Heritage of Hawraman, Kurdistan, Iranian Zagros". Near Eastern Archaeology 82 (4): 226–235. doi:10.1086/706536. ISSN 1094-2076. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/706536.
  19. ↑ Zeder, Melinda A. (2005). "A View from the Zagros: new perspectives on livestock domestication in the Fertile Crescent". ۾ Jean-Denis Vigne; Joris Peters; Daniel Helmer (مرتب). First Steps of Animal Domestication - Proceedings of the 9th Conference of the International Council of Archaeozoology, Durham, August 2002. Oxford: Oxbow. ص. 129–30. ISBN 9781842171219.
  20. ↑ Trinkaus, Erik; Biglari, Fereidoun (2006). "Middle Paleolithic Human Remains from Bisitun Cave, Iran". Paléorient 32 (2): 105–111. doi:10.3406/paleo.2006.5192. https://www.academia.edu/224543. Retrieved 10 February 2026.
  21. ↑ "UNESCO assessor visits prehistoric caves in Khorramabad's valley". Tehran Times. 13 September 2024.
  22. ↑ "Khorramabad Valley: A potential UNESCO World Heritage Site". Iran Daily. 21 January 2024.
  23. ↑ Nidhi Subbaraman (5 July 2013). "Early humans in Iran were growing wheat 12,000 years ago". NBC.news. 10 January 2026 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  24. 1 2 "The world's earliest known ancient wine jar". Penn Museum – University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. اصل نسخو مان 16 December 2008 تي محفوظ ڪيل.
  25. ↑ Alizadeh, Abbas (Spring 1997). "Excavations at Chogha Bonut: The earliest village in Susiana, Iran". The Oriental Institue (153): 1–4. https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/nn153.pdf. Retrieved 11 February 2026.
  26. ↑ حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "MMA_IranTLine_1".
  27. ↑ "Persia The Ancient Iran (photography by Ali Majdfar)". pbase.com - Ancient Iran Museum. 26 July 2013. 27 March 2008 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  28. ↑ Script error: The function "harvard_core" does not exist.
  29. ↑ K. Kris Hirst. "Chogha Mish (Iran)". About.com Education - Archaeology. اصل نسخو مان 6 November 2013 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 11 June 2010 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  30. ↑ Smith, Philip E.L. (1990). "Architectural Innovation and Experimentation at Ganj Dareh, Iran". World Archaeology 21 (3): 323–335. doi:10.1080/00438243.1990.9980111. ISSN 0043-8243. https://doi.org/10.1080/00438243.1990.9980111.
  31. ↑ "New Discoveries in Jiroft May Change History of Civilization". CHN - Cultural Heritage News. 26 January 2006. اصل نسخو مان 11 April 2008 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 16 March 2023 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  32. ↑ Kushnareva, Karinė Kh. (1997). The Southern Caucasus in Prehistory: Stages of Cultural and Socioeconomic Development from the Eighth to the Second Millennium B.C. UPenn Museum of Archaeology. ص. 44. ISBN 9780924171505.
  33. ↑ Sagona, Antonio; Zimansky, Paul (2015). Ancient Turkey. Routledge. ص. 163. ISBN 9781134440276.
  34. ↑ Algaze, Guillermo (2005) [1993]. The Uruk World System: The Dynamics of Expansion of Early Mesopotamian Civilization. University of Chicago Press. ص. 2. ISBN 9780226013824.
  35. ↑ Carter, Robert A.; Graham, Philip, مرتب (2010) [2006]. Beyond the Ubaid: transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization Series n. 63. The Oriental Institute of The University Of Chicago. ISBN 9781885923660.
  36. ↑ Script error: The function "harvard_core" does not exist.
  37. ↑ حوالي جي چڪ: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "xinhuaNet_10082007".
  38. ↑ Maryam Tabeshian (13 December 2006). "5000-Y-Old Inscribed Tablets Discovered in Jiroft". CHN - Cultural Heritage News. اصل نسخو مان 11 May 2011 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 12 February 2026 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  39. ↑ Script error: The function "harvard_core" does not exist.
  40. ↑ Script error: The function "harvard_core" does not exist.
  41. ↑ Script error: The function "harvard_core" does not exist.
  42. 1 2 "Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History - Iran, 1000 BC–1 AD". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2000. 13 January 2026 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  43. ↑ Medvedskaya, I.N. (January 2002). "The Rise and Fall of Media". International Journal of Kurdish Studies. اصل نسخو مان 28 March 2008 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 10 August 2008 تي حاصل ڪيل – BNET وسيلي.
  44. ↑ Sicker, Martin (2000). The pre-Islamic Middle East. Praeger. ص. 68-9. ISBN 9780275968908.
  45. ↑ Troy R. Bishop (1982). "Urartu – Lost Kingdom of Van". اصل نسخو مان 2 July 2015 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 18 February 2026 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  46. ↑ "Urartu Civilization". All About Turkey. محفوظ ڪيل مان اصل نسخي کان 1 July 2015 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 18 June 2015 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  47. ↑ "Forgotten Empire — The world of Ancient Persia". The British Museum. 2005. اصل نسخو مان 23 April 2007 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 16 March 2023 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  48. ↑ Hooker, Richard (1996). "Mesopotamia - The Persians". World Civilizations. اصل نسخو مان 29 August 2006 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 20 August 2006 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  49. ↑ Kambiz Kamrani (4 December 2004). "Engineering an Empire: The Persians". Anthropology.net. اصل نسخو مان 10 January 2007 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 13 March 2007 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  50. ↑ Fariborz Rahnamoon. "Benevolent Persian Empire". اصل نسخو مان 7 September 2005 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 18 February 2026 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  51. 1 2 3 Roisman & Worthington (2010), p. 345.
  52. ↑ Carey, Brian T. (2006). Warfare in the Ancient World. Joshua B. Allfree and John Cairns illustrators. Pen and Sword. ص. 32. ISBN 9781848846302.
  53. ↑ Aeschylus (2009) [c. 472 BCE]. Burian, Peter; Shapiro, Alan (مرتب). The Complete Aeschylus. جلد II: Persians and Other Plays. Oxford University Press. ص. 18. ISBN 9780195373288.
  54. ↑ Script error: The function "harvard_core" does not exist.
  55. ↑ Stillman, Norman A. (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands. Jewish Publication Society. ص. 22. ISBN 9780827611559.
  56. ↑ Jeffreys, Elizabeth, مرتب (2006). Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London, 21–26 August 2006 (volumes 1–3). Judith Gilliland assistant editor. Ashgate Publishing. ص. 29. ISBN 075465740X.
  57. ↑ Garthwaite, Gene R. (2005). The Persians. Blackwell. ص. 2. ISBN 9781557868602.
  58. ↑ J. B. Bury, p.109.
  59. 1 2 Durant.
  60. ↑ Matteo Compareti. "The Sasanians in Africa". محفوظ ڪيل مان اصل نسخي کان 28 May 2008 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 5 March 2007 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  61. ↑ Script error: The function "harvard_core" does not exist.
  62. ↑ "Iransaga - The Sassanians - Persian Art". Art Arena. محفوظ ڪيل مان اصل نسخي کان 23 November 2019 تي محفوظ ڪيل. 5 March 2007 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  63. ↑ Zarinkoob, Abdolhossein (1999). Rūzgārān: tārīkh-i Īrān az āghāz tā suqūṭ-i salṭanat-i Pahlavī روزگاران: تاريخ ايران از آغاز تا سقوط سلطنت پهلوى [Ages: The history of Iran from the beginning until the fall of the Pahlavi monarchy] (فارسي ۾). Tehran: Intishārāt-i Sukhan. ص. 305. ISBN 9789646961111. OCLC 46890937.

حوالا

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ذريعا

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ڪيمبرج هسٽري آف ايران

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انسائيڪلوپيڊيا ايرانيڪا آن لائن

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ٻيا ذريعا

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وڌيڪ مطالعو

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ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا

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