مواد ڏانھن هلو

اموي جامع مسجد

کليل ڄاڻ چيڪلي، وڪيپيڊيا مان
Umayyad Mosque
ٱلْجَامِع ٱلْأُمَوِي (عربي)
اموي جامع مسجد، دمشق
بنيادي ڄاڻ
جاءِدمشق، دمشق گورنريٽ
مقانيت33°30′41″N 36°18′24″E / 33.51139°N 36.30667°E / 33.51139; 36.30667
مذهبي لاڳاپوسني اسلام
ملڪ شام
فعالي حيثيتفعال
تعميري ڄاڻ
اڏاوت جو قسممسجد
اڏاوتي طرزاسلامي فن تعمير
مڪمل ٿيو715 عيسوي
خصوصيتون
منارا3
منارن جي اوچائي77 m (253 ft)
تعميري موادپٿر، ماربل جي سرون، موزائيڪ

اموي جامع مسجد (عربي: ٱلْجَامِع ٱلْأُمَوِي)، جن کي دمشق جي وڏي جامع مسجد (عربي: جَامِع بَنِي أُمَيَّة ٱلْكَبِيْر) جي نالي سان پڻ سڃاتو وڃي ٿو، شام جي گاديءَ واري شهر دمشق ۾ واقع، دنيا جي سڀ کان وڏي ۽ قديم مسجدن مان هڪ آهي. ان جي مذهبي اهميت مسجد ۽ ان سان لاڳاپيل تاريخي واقعن بابت عقيدي مان پيدا ٿئي ٿي. عيسائي ۽ مسلم روايتون ان کي يحيي عليه السلام جي سر جي دفن جي جاءِ سمجهن ٿيون. احاطي اندر ٻه مزارون محمد ﷺ جي پوٽي حسين بن علي جي ياد ۾ آهن، جن جي شهادت جو مقابلو اڪثر يحيي عليه السلام جي شهادت سان ڪيو ويندو آهي. اها مسجد پنهنجي اصل شڪل ۾ استعمال ٿيندڙ سڀ کان پراڻي مسجد سمجهي وڃي ٿي.[1]

هي ماڳ لوهه جي دور کان وٺي عبادت جي گھر طور استعمال ٿيندو رهيو آهي، جڏهن آرامي ماڻهو ان تي پنهنجي مينهن جي ديوتا، حداد جي پوجا لاءِ وقف هڪ مندر تعمير ڪيو. بعد ۾ هيلينسٽڪ دور ۾ ان کي يوناني ديوتا زيوس سان لاڳاپيل ڪيو ويو. 64 عيسوي کان پوءِ رومن حڪمراني هيٺ، ان کي مينهن جي رومن ديوتا، مشتري جي شاهي فرقي جي مرڪز ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويو، جيڪو شام ۾ سڀ کان وڏي مندرن مان هڪ بڻجي ويو. مسجد جون موجوده ڀتيون، پهرين صدي قبل مسيح کان چوٿين صدي عيسوي تائين ٺهيل، مشتري مندر جون اندروني ڀتيون هيون جڏهن شام ۾ سلطنت عيسائي بازنطيني حڪمران ۾ منتقل ٿي، شهنشاهه ٿيوڊوسيس پهريون (دور: 379-395ع) ان کي هڪ گرجا گھر ۽ انطاڪيا جي سرپرست ۾ ٻئي نمبر تي اعليٰ ترين بشپ جي سيٽ ۾ منتقل ڪيو.

سال 634ع ۾ دمشق جي مسلمانن پاران فتح کان پوءِ، گرجا گھر جو هڪ حصو مسلمان فاتحن لاءِ هڪ ننڍڙي مصلا طور نامزد ڪيو ويو. جيئن جيئن مسلمان برادري وڌي، اموي خليفي الوليد اول (دور حڪومت: 705-715ع) باقي گرجا گھر کي مسلمان استعمال لاءِ ضبط ڪري ورتو ۽ شهر ۾ ٻين ملڪيتن کي معاوضي طور عيسائين کي واپس ڪري ڇڏيو. ڍانچي کي وڏي پيماني تي ڊاهي ڇڏيو ويو ۽ ان جي جاءِ تي هڪ عظيم الشان مسجد ڪمپليڪس ٺاهيو ويو. نئين ڍانچي کي نو سالن ۾ اسلامي ۽ بازنطيني سلطنتن جي هزارين مزدورن ۽ ڪاريگرن پاران وڏي خرچ تي تعمير ڪيو ويو ۽ ان کي اموي فتحن جي جنگي مال ۽ دمشق جي عرب فوجن تي ٽيڪسن مان فنڊ ڪيو ويو. ان وقت جي سادي مسجدن جي برعڪس، اموي مسجد ۾ ٽي متوازي گلا ۽ هڪ عمودي مرڪزي ناف هو جيڪو مسجد جي داخلا کان دنيا جي ٻئي مقعر محراب (نماز جي جاءِ) تائين وڃي ٿو. مسجد سنگ مرمر جي پينلنگ جي آرائشي ساخت سبزي جي نقشن ۽ ان جي وسيع سونهري نقشي ڪاري لاءِ مشهور هئي، جيڪي تقريبن 4,000 چورس ميٽر (43,000 چورس فوٽ) کي ڍڪيندي هئي، جيڪي شايد دنيا ۾ سڀ کان وڏي هئي.

عباسي دور (750-860ع) ۾، نوان ڍانچا شامل ڪيا ويا، جن ۾ قبو ۽ مينار شامل هئا، جڏهن ته مملوڪ (1260-1516ع) وڏي بحالي جون ڪوششون ڪيون ۽ قيتبي جو مينار شامل ڪيو. اموي مسجد اڳوڻين مسجدن جي مقابلي ۾ وڌيڪ منظم ۽ يادگار ڊيزائن متعارف ڪرائيندي نئين اسلامي فن تعمير کي جدت ڏني ۽ متاثر ڪيو. ان کي پنهنجي تاريخ ۾ وڏي عزت حاصل هئي ۽ ڪيترن ئي قرون وسطيٰ جي مسلمان ليکڪن پاران "دنيا جو عجوبو" سمجهيو ويندو هو.[2] جيتوڻيڪ اصل ڍانچي کي باهه، جنگ جي نقصان ۽ مرمت جي ڪري ڪيترائي ڀيرا تبديل ڪيو ويو آهي، اهو ڪجهه مسجدن مان هڪ آهي جيڪيون پنهنجي 8هين صدي جي تعمير جي ساڳئي شڪل ۽ تعميراتي خاصيتن ۽ انهي سان گڏ ان جي اموي ڪردار کي پڻ برقرار رکڻ ٿيون.

تاريخ

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ماقبل اسلام

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اموي مسجد جي جاءِ کي لوهه جي دور کان وٺي عبادت جي جاءِ طور تسليم ڪيو ويو آهي. دمشق آرامي رياست "آرام-دمشق" جو گاديءَ جو هنڌ هو ۽ هڪ وڏو مندر طوفان ۽ مينهن جي ديوتا حداد-رمن جي نالي سان وقف ڪيو ويو هو ۽ هن جاءِ تي تعمير ڪيو ويو هو. آرامي مندر مان هڪ پٿر باقي آهي، جيڪو بادشاهه هزائيل جي دور جو آهي ۽ هن وقت دمشق جي قومي عجائب گھر ۾ نمائش لاءِ رکيل آهي.[3]

حداد-رمن جو مندر بعد ۾ شهر ۾ مرڪزي ڪردار ادا ڪندو رهيو. هيلينسٽڪ دور ۾ سيليوڪس جي حڪمراني هيٺ، شايد ٻي صدي قبل مسيح ۾، مندر رسمي طور تي يوناني ديوتا زيوس جي نالي سان وقف ڪيو ويو هو، جيڪو حداد-رمن سان ملائي ويو هو. رومي سلطنت پاران 64 ق.م ۾ دمشق کي فتح ڪرڻ کان پوءِ، انهن برابر رومي ديوتا، مشتري جي پوڄا شروع ڪئي. انهيءَ ڪري، اهي مندر کي ٻيهر ترتيب ڏيڻ ۽ وڌائڻ جي هڪ منصوبي ۾ مصروف هئا، شايد آگسٽس (دور 27 ق.م - 14 عيسوي) جي دور ۾ شروع ٿيو. بعد ۾ دمشق ۾ پيدا ٿيندڙ معمار اپولوڊورس شايد ڊزائن ۾ شامل هجي.[4]

جوپيٽر جو نئون مندر جوپيٽر جي شاهي فرقي جو مرڪز بڻجي ويو ۽ يروشلم ۾ ٻئي مندر جي جواب طور ڪم ڪيو ويو. جوپيٽر جو مندر شروعاتي رومن دور ۾ وڌيڪ اضافو حاصل ڪندو، ڪجهه ماڻهن جي عطيا ذريعي فنڊ ڪيو ويو. سيپٽيميئس سيويرس (دور 193-211) جي دور ۾ مندر کي وڌيڪ مرمت ۽ سينگاريو ويو. اڄ نظر ايندڙ مغربي پروپيليم جا باقيات گهڻو ڪري سندس وقت جا آهن. چوٿين صدي تائين، مندر خاص طور تي پنهنجي سائيز ۽ خوبصورتي لاءِ مشهور هو. اهو شهر کان ڀتين جي ٻن سيٽن سان الڳ ٿي ويو. پهرين، ٻاهرين ڀت هڪ وسيع علائقي تي پکڙيل هئي جنهن ۾ هڪ مارڪيٽ شامل هئي ۽ ٻي اندروني ڀت جوپيٽر جي اصل مقدس جاءِ کي گهيرو ڪري رهي هئي. اهو رومن شام ۾ سڀ کان وڏو مندر هو.[4]

سال 391ع ۾، عيسائي شهنشاهه ٿيوڊوسيس پهريون (دور: 379-395) پاران مشتري جي مندر کي هڪ گرجا گھر ۾ تبديل ڪيو ويو. چرچ شايد ان وقت جي سڀني چرچ کان وڏين مان هڪ هو. اهو دمشق جي بشپ جي جاءِ طور ڪم ڪندو هو، جيڪو انطاڪيا جي سرپرست جي اندر پاڻ سرپرست کان پوءِ ٻئي نمبر تي هو.[5]

اموي تعمير

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بنياد ۽ تعمير

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مسجد جي ٻاهرين ڏکڻ ڀت ۾ هڪ پراڻي رومي دور جي ٽن دروازي جا باقيات[6]

دمشق تي 634ع ۾ خالد بن الوليد جي اڳواڻي ۾ مسلم عرب فوجن قبضو ڪيو. 661ع ۾، اسلامي خلافت اموي خاندان جي حڪمراني هيٺ آئي، جنهن دمشق کي مسلم دنيا جي انتظامي گاديءَ جو هنڌ چونڊيو. بازنطيني گرجا گھر مقامي عيسائين جي استعمال ۾ رهيو، پر عمارت جي ڏکڻ اوڀر حصي تي مسلمانن لاءِ هڪ نماز جو ڪمرو (مصلاح) تعمير ڪيو ويو. مصعل ۾ دمشق ۾ مسلمان عبادت ڪندڙن جي تيزي سان وڌندڙ تعداد کي رکڻ جي گنجائش نه هئي. ٻي صورت ۾ شهر ۾ هڪ وڏي اجتماعي مسجد لاءِ ڪافي خالي جاءِ نه هئي. ڇهين اموي خليفي، الوليد اول (دور حڪومت 705-715)، 706ع ۾ گرجا گھر جي جاءِ تي اهڙي مسجد ٺاهڻ جو عزم ڪيو. اعلان ڪندي: *

"دمشق جا رهواسي، چار شيون توهان کي باقي دنيا تي نمايان برتري ڏين ٿيون: توهان جي آبهوا، توهان جو پاڻي، توهان جا ميوا، ۽ توهان جا غسل. انهن ۾ مان پنجون حصو شامل ڪرڻ چاهيان ٿو: هي مسجد."

الوليد ذاتي طور تي منصوبي جي نگراني ڪئي ۽ گهڻو ڪري گرجا گھر، جنهن ۾ مصلا به شامل آهي، ڊاهي ڇڏيو. مسجد جي تعمير عمارت جي ترتيب کي مڪمل طور تي تبديل ڪري ڇڏيو، جيتوڻيڪ ان رومن دور جي مندر جي تيمينوس (مقدس جاءِ يا اندروني احاطي) جي ٻاهرين ڀتين کي محفوظ ڪيو. جڏهن ته چرچ (۽ ان کان اڳ مندرن) ۾ مکيه عمارت مستطيل احاطي جي مرڪز ۾ واقع هئي، مسجد جو نماز هال ان جي ڏکڻ ڀت جي سامهون رکيل آهي. معمار چرچ جي ڪالمن ۽ آرڪيڊز کي ري سائيڪل ڪيو، انهن کي ڊاهي ڇڏيو ۽ نئين ڍانچي ۾ ٻيهر رکيو. دمشقين لاءِ هڪ وڏي اجتماعي مسجد جي طور تي ان جي استعمال کان علاوه، نئين عبادت گهر جو مقصد شهر کي خراج تحسين پيش ڪرڻ هو.


was captured by Muslim Arab forces led by Khalid ibn al-Walid in 634. In 661, the Islamic Caliphate came under the rule of the Umayyad dynasty, which chose Damascus to be the administrative capital of the Muslim world.[7] The Byzantine cathedral had remained in use by the local Christians, but a prayer room (musalla) for Muslims was constructed on the southeastern part of the building.[8][9] The musalla did not have the capacity to house the rapidly growing number of Muslim worshippers in Damascus. The city otherwise lacked sufficient free space for a large congregational mosque.[10] The sixth Umayyad caliph, al-Walid I (r. 705–715), resolved to construct such a mosque on the site of the cathedral in 706.[7] Proclaiming:[11]

Inhabitants of Damascus, four things give you marked superiority over the rest of the world: your climate, your water, your fruits, and your baths. To these I wanted to add a fifth: this mosque.”

Al-Walid personally supervised the project and had most of the cathedral, including the musalla, demolished. The construction of the mosque completely altered the layout of the building, though it preserved the outer walls of the temenos (sanctuary or inner enclosure) of the Roman-era temple.[8][9] While the church (and the temples before it) had the main building located at the centre of the rectangular enclosure, the mosque's prayer hall is placed against its south wall. The architect recycled the columns and arcades of the church, dismantling and repositioning them in the new structure. Besides its use as a large congregational mosque for the Damascenes, the new house of worship was meant as a tribute to the city.[12][13][14]

Façade of the prayer hall

In response to Christian protest at the move, al-Walid ordered all the other confiscated churches in the city to be returned to the Christians as compensation. The mosque was completed in 711,[15][16] or in 715, shortly after al-Walid's death, by his successor, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 715–717 ).[12][13][14] According to 10th-century Persian historian Ibn al-Faqih, somewhere between 600,000 and 1,000,000 gold dinars were spent on the project.[12][17] The historian Khalid Yahya Blankinship notes that the field army of Damascus, numbering some 45,000 soldiers, were taxed a quarter of their salaries for nine years to pay for its construction.[15][16] Coptic (Egyptian) craftsmen as well as Persian, Indian, Greek, and Maghrebi laborers provided the bulk of the labour force which consisted of 12,000 people.[18][17] The extravagant costs also attracted initial resentment among the population and criticism from some Muslim writers.[19][20][صفحو گهربل]

The mosque subsequently held major religious and cultural significance throughout its history, while also having a strong influence on later Islamic architecture.[2] It was commonly regarded as one of the "wonders of the world" by medieval Muslim authors, who praised its architecture and decoration.[21] Some medieval authors even claim that of the five wonders the mosque ranks fourth for its superlative beauty and extraordinary cost while its decoration ranks fifth.[21]

Layout design

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Floor plan of the mosque (today), with the courtyard above and the three-aisled prayer hall below

The plan of the new mosque was innovative and highly influential in the history of early Islamic architecture.[22][23] The earliest mosques before this had been relatively plain hypostyle structures (a flat-roof hall supported by columns), of which the Prophet's Mosque in Medina was an important model.[24] The new mosque in Damascus introduced a more basilical plan to this model, with three parallel aisles and a perpendicular central nave. The central nave, which leads from the main entrance to the mihrab (niche in the qibla wall) and features a central dome, provided a new aesthetic focus which may have been designed to emphasize the area originally reserved for the caliph during prayers, near the mihrab.[22][23] There is some uncertainty as to whether the dome was originally directly in front of the mihrab (as in many later mosques) or in its current position mid-way along the central nave.[25] Scholars have attributed the design of the mosque's plan to the influences of Byzantine Christian basilicas in the region.[22][26] Rafi Grafman and Myriam Rosen-Ayalon have argued that the first Umayyad Al-Aqsa Mosque built in Jerusalem, begun by Abd al-Malik (al-Walid's father) and now replaced by later constructions, had a layout very similar to the current Umayyad Mosque in Damascus and that it probably served as a model for the latter.[27]

Interior of the prayer hall

The mosque initially had no minaret towers, as this feature of mosque architecture was not established until later. However, at least two of the corners of the mosque's outer wall had short towers, platforms, or roof shelters which were used by the muezzin to issue the call to prayer (adhān), constituting a type of proto-minaret. These features were referred to as a mi'd͟hana ("place of the adhān") or as a ṣawma῾a ("monk's cell", due to their small size) in historical Arabic sources.[28][29] Arabic sources indicated that they were former Roman towers which already stood at the corners of the temenos before the mosque's construction and were simply left intact and reused after construction.[28][30]

Decoration

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Remnants of original marble paneling around the inside of Bab Jairun, the east gate of the mosque[31]

The mosque was richly decorated. A rich composition of marble paneling covered the lower walls, though only minor examples of the original marbles have survived today near the east gate.[32] The walls of the prayer hall were raised above the level of the old temenos walls, which allowed for new windows to be inserted in the upper walls. The windows had ornately carved grilles that foreshadowed the styles of windows in later Islamic architecture.[32][33]

The most celebrated decorative element of all was the revetment of mosaics, which originally covered much of the courtyard and the interior hall. The best-preserved remains are still visible in the courtyard today.[lower-alpha 1]

By some estimates, the original mosque had the largest area of gold mosaics in the world, covering approximately 4,000 چورس ميٽرs (43,000 ft2).[23] The mosaics depict landscapes and buildings in a characteristic late Roman style.[36][37] They reflected a wide variety of artistic styles used by mosaicists and painters since the 1st century CE, but the combined use of all these different styles in the same place was innovative at the time.[38] Similar to the Dome of the Rock, built earlier by Abd al-Malik, vegetation and plants were the most common motif, but those of the Damascus mosque are more naturalistic.[38] In addition to the large landscape depictions, a mosaic frieze with an intricate vine motif (referred to as the karma in Arabic historical sources) once ran around the walls of the prayer hall, above the level of the mihrab.[39] The only notable omission is the absence of human and animal figures, which was likely a new restriction imposed by the Muslim patron.[38]

Western portico of the courtyard, with partial remains of mosaic decoration[40]

Historical Arabic sources, often written in later centuries, suggest that both the craftsmen and the materials employed to create the mosque's mosaics were imported from the Byzantine capital of Constantinople.[41][42][43] The 12th-century historian Ibn Asakir claimed that al-Walid pressured the Byzantine emperor into sending him 200 craftsmen by threatening to destroy all churches inside Umayyad territory if he refused.[44][45] Many scholars, based on such evidence from Arabic sources, have accepted a Byzantine (Constantinopolitan) origin for the mosaics,[46][47] while some, such as Creswell, have interpreted the story as a later embellishment of Muslim historians with a symbolic political significance.[48]

Art historian Finbarr Barry Flood notes that historical sources report many other apparent gifts of artisans and materials from the Byzantine emperors to the Umayyad caliphs and other rulers, probably reflecting a widespread admiration for Byzantine craftsmanship that continued in the early Islamic period.[49] He notes that while Byzantine influence is indeed apparent in the mosque's mosaic imagery, there are multiple ways in which Byzantine mosaicists could have contributed to its production, including a collaboration with local craftsmen.[50] Some scholars argue that the mosaic techniques in both the Dome of the Rock and the Umayyad Mosque, including their distinctive colour scheme, are more clearly consistent with the craftsmanship of Syro-Palestinian or Egyptian mosaicists. Archeologist Judith McKenzie suggests that the mosaics could have been designed by local artisans who oversaw their production, while any mosaicists sent from Constantinople could have been working under their supervision.[51] A recent 2022 study of the chemical composition of mosaic tesserae in the Umayyad Mosque concluded that the majority were produced in Egypt around the time of the mosque's construction, matching other recent studies of samples from the Dome of the Rock and Khirbat al-Majfar that came to the same conclusion.[43]

Portion of the so-called "Barada Panel" behind the western portico, with remains of original Umayyad mosaics, depicting landscapes and buildings[32][40]

Scholars have long debated the meaning of the mosaic imagery. Some historical Muslim writers and some modern scholars have interpreted them as a topographical representation of all the cities in the known world (or within the Umayyad world), some have interpreted them as a representation of Damascus itself and the Barada River, and other scholars interpret them as a depiction of Paradise.[38][52] The earliest known interpretation of the mosaics is by the 10th-century geographer al-Muqaddasi, who suggested a topographical meaning, commenting that "there is hardly a tree or a notable town that has not been pictured on these walls."[38] An early example of the Paradise interpretation dates from the writings of Ibn al-Najjar in the 12th century.[53] This interpretation has been favoured by more recent scholarship.[38] Some of the Qur'anic inscriptions that were originally present on the qibla wall of the mosque, mentioning the Day of Judgment and promising the reward of a heavenly garden (al-janna), may support this interpretation.[54] Another clue is an account by historian Ibn Zabala in 814, which reports that one of the mosaicists who worked for al-Walid's reconstruction of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina (contemporary with the construction in Damascus) directly explained the mosaics there as a reproduction of the trees and palaces of Paradise,[55] which suggests that the contemporary Umayyad mosaics in Damascus had the same intention.[56]

In this interpretation, the lack of human figures in these scenes possibly represents a Paradise that stands empty until the arrival of its human inhabitants at the end of time.[54] Other motifs in the mosaics have been cited to support a paradisal meaning and the imagery has been compared with both the descriptions of Paradise in the Qur'an and the earlier iconography of paradisal imagery in Late Antique art.[57] According to Judith McKenzie, there is a similarity between certain architectural elements depicted in the Umayyad mosaics and those shown in Pompeian frescoes (such as broken pediments and tholoi with tented roofs and Corinthian columns), as well as some early Christian and Byzantine art, which are most likely depictions of the architecture of Hellenistic Alexandria.[58] In Roman and Late Antique art, Alexandrian and Egyptian landscapes had a paradisal connotation.[59] McKenzie argues that the Umayyad mosaics, extending these traditions, can thus be understood as a depiction of Paradise.[60] The possibility also remains that the mosaic scenes combine more than one of these meanings at the same time; for example, by using paradisal imagery to represent Damascus or the Umayyad realm as an idealized, earthly paradise.[38][52]

The mihrab

[سنواريو]
Photograph of the mosque's mihrab (center) and minbar (right) before the 1893 fire

The original mihrab was one of the first concave mihrabs in the Islamic world, the second one known to exist after the one created in 706–707 during al-Walid's reconstruction of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina.[61][22] The exact appearance of the mosque's original main mihrab is uncertain, due to the multiple repairs and restorations that took place over the centuries. Ibn Jubayr, who visited the mosque in 1184, described the inside of the mihrab as filled with miniature blind arcades whose arches resembled "small mihrabs", each filled with inlaid mother-of-pearl mosaics and framed by spiral columns of marble.[62] This mihrab was famed across the Islamic world for its beauty, as noted by other writers of the era.[62]

Its appearance may have been imitated by other surviving mihrabs built under the Mamluk sultans al-Mansur Qalawun and al-Nasir Muhammad in the 13th and 14th centuries, such as the richly decorated mihrab of Qalawun's mausoleum in Cairo (completed in 1285).[63] Scholars generally assume that the mihrab described by Ibn Jubayr dated from a restoration of the mosque in 1082.[62] Another restoration occurred after 1401 and this version, which survived until another fire in 1893, was again decorated with miniature arcades, while its semi-dome was filled with coffering similar to Roman architecture.[62][64] Finbarr Barry Flood has suggested that the perpetuation of the mihrab's arcaded decoration across several restorations indicates that the medieval restorations were aimed at preserving at least some of the original mihrab's appearance, and therefore the 8th-century Umayyad mihrab may have had these features.[62]

Abbasid and Fatimid era

[سنواريو]
Qubbat Al-Khazna (Dome of the Treasury), built in 789–90

Following the toppling of the Umayyads in 750, the Abbasid dynasty came to power and moved the capital of the Caliphate to Baghdad. Apart from the attention given for strategic and commercial purposes, the Abbasids had no interest in Damascus. Thus, the Umayyad Mosque reportedly suffered under their rule, with little recorded building activity between the 8th and 10th centuries.[65] However, the Abbasids did consider the mosque to be a major symbol of Islam's triumph, and thus it was spared the systematic eradication of the Umayyad legacy in the city.[66] In 789–90 the Abbasid governor of Damascus, al-Fadl ibn Salih ibn Ali, constructed the Dome of the Treasury with the purpose of housing the mosque's funds.[66] The so-called Dome of the Clock, standing in the eastern part of the courtyard, may have also been erected originally by the same Abbasid governor in 780.[67][68] The 10th-century Jerusalemite geographer al-Muqaddasi credited the Abbasids for building the northern minaret (Madhanat al-Arous, meaning 'Minaret of the Bride') of the mosque in 831 during the reign of Caliph al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833 ).[65][66] This was accompanied by al-Ma'mun's removal and replacement of Umayyad inscriptions in the mosque.[69]

By the early 10th century, a monumental water clock had been installed by the entrance in the western part of the southern wall of the mosque, which was consequently known as Bab al-Sa'a ('Gate of the Clock') at the time but is known today as Bab al-Ziyada.[70] This clock seems to have stopped functioning by the middle of the 12th century.[71] Abbasid rule over Syria began crumbling during the early 10th century, and in the decades that followed, it came under the control of autonomous realms who were only nominally under Abbasid authority. The Fatimids of Egypt, who adhered to Shia Islam, conquered Damascus in 970, but few recorded improvements of the mosque were undertaken by the new rulers. The Umayyad Mosque's prestige allowed the residents of Damascus to establish the city as a center for Sunni intellectualism, enabling them to maintain relative independence from Fatimid religious authority.[72] In 1069, large sections of the mosque, particularly the northern wall, were destroyed in a fire as a result of an uprising by the city's residents against the Fatimids' Berber army who were garrisoned there.[73]

Seljuk and Ayyubid era

[سنواريو]

The Sunni Muslim Seljuk Turks gained control of the city in 1078 and restored the nominal rule of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Seljuk ruler Tutush (r. 1079–1095 ) initiated the repair of damage caused by the 1069 fire.[74] In 1082, his vizier, Abu Nasr Ahmad ibn Fadl, had the central dome restored in a more spectacular form;[75] the two piers supporting it were reinforced and the original Umayyad mosaics of the northern inner façade were renewed. The northern riwaq ('portico') was rebuilt in 1089.[76] The Seljuk atabeg of Damascus, Toghtekin (r. 1104–1128 ), repaired the northern wall in 1110 and two inscribed panels located above its doorways were dedicated to him.[77] In 1113, the Seljuk atabeg of Mosul, Sharaf al-Din Mawdud (r. 1109–1113 ), was assassinated in the Umayyad Mosque.[78] As the conflict between Damascus and the Crusaders intensified in the mid-12th century, the mosque was used as a principal rallying point calling on Muslims to defend the city and return Jerusalem to Muslim hands. Prominent imams, including Ibn Asakir, preached a spiritual jihad ('struggle') and when the Crusaders advanced towards Damascus in 1148, the city's residents heeded their calls; the Crusader army withdrew as a result of their resistance.[79]

In Damascus there is a mosque that has no equal in the world, not one with such fine proportion, nor one so solidly constructed, nor one vaulted so securely, nor one more marvelously laid out, nor one so admirably decorated in gold mosaics and diverse designs, with enameled tiles and polished marbles.

“
”

During the reign of the Zengid ruler Nur ad-Din Zangi, which began in 1154, a second monumental clock, the Jayrun Water Clock, was built on his personal orders.[81] It was constructed outside the eastern entrance to the mosque, called Bab Jayrun, by the architect Muhammad al-Sa'ati, was rebuilt by al-Sa'ati following a fire in 1167, and was eventually repaired by his son, Ridwan, in the early 13th century. It may have survived into the 14th century.[82] The Arab geographer al-Idrisi visited the mosque in 1154.[66]

Damascus witnessed the establishment of several religious institutions under the Ayyubids, but the Umayyad Mosque retained its place as the center of religious life in the city. Muslim traveler Ibn Jubayr described the mosque as containing many different zawaya (religious lodges) for religious and Quranic studies. In 1173, the northern wall of the mosque was damaged again by the fire and was rebuilt by the Ayyubid sultan, Saladin (r. 1174–1193), along with the Minaret of the Bride,[83] which had been destroyed in the 1069 fire.[66] During the internal feuds between later Ayyubid princes, the city was dealt a great deal of damage, and the mosque's eastern minaret—known as the 'Minaret of Jesus'—was destroyed at the hands of as-Salih Ayyub of Egypt while besieging as-Salih Ismail of Damascus in 1245.[84] The minaret was later rebuilt with little decoration.[85] Saladin, along with many of his successors, were buried around the Umayyad Mosque (see Mausoleum of Saladin).[86]

Mamluk era

[سنواريو]
Umayyad Mosque as depicted in the Book of Wonders, a late 14th-century Arabic manuscript

The Mongols, under the leadership of the Nestorian Christian Kitbuqa, with the help of some submitted Western Christian forces, captured Damascus from the Ayyubids in 1260 while Kitbuqa's superior Hulagu Khan had returned to the Mongol Empire for other business. Bohemond VI of Antioch, one of the Western Christian generals in the invasion, ordered Catholic Mass to be performed in the Umayyad Mosque.[87] However, the Muslim Mamluks of Egypt, led by Sultan Qutuz and Baybars, wrested control of the city from the Mongols later in the same year, killing Kitbuqa in the Battle of Ain Jalut, and the purpose of the Mosque was returned from Christian to its original Islamic function. In 1270, Baybars, by now sultan, ordered extensive restorations to the mosque, particularly its marble, mosaics and gildings. According to Baybars' biographer, Ibn Shaddad, the restorations cost the sultan 20,000 dinars. Among the largest mosaic fragments restored was a 34.5 by 7.3 metres (113 by 24 ft) segment in the western portico called the "Barada panel".[88] The mosaics that decorated the mosque were a specific target of the restoration project and they had a major influence on Mamluk architecture in Syria and Egypt.[89]

In 1285, the Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyya started teaching Qur'an exegesis in the mosque. When the Ilkhanid Mongols under Ghazan invaded the city in 1300, Ibn Taymiyya preached jihad, urging the citizens of Damascus to resist their occupation. The Mamluks under Sultan Qalawun drove out the Mongols later that year.[90] When Qalawun's forces entered the city, the Mongols attempted to station several catapults in the Umayyad Mosque because the Mamluks had started fires around the citadel to prevent Mongol access to it. The attempt failed as the Mamluks burned the catapults before they were placed in the mosque.[91]

The Mamluk viceroy of Syria, Tankiz, carried out restoration work in the mosque in 1326–1328. He reassembled the mosaics on the qibla wall and replaced all the marble tiles in the prayer hall. Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad also undertook major restoration work for the mosque in 1328. He demolished and completely rebuilt the unstable qibla wall and moved the Bab al-Ziyadah gate to the east.[88] Much of that work was damaged during a fire that burned the mosque in 1339.[89] Islamic art expert, Finbarr Barry Flood, describes the Bahri Mamluks' attitude towards the mosque as an "obsessive interest" and their efforts at maintaining, repairing, and restoring the mosque were unparalleled in any other period of Muslim rule.[92] The Arab astronomer Ibn al-Shatir worked as the chief muwaqqit ('religious timekeeper') and the chief muezzin at the Umayyad Mosque from 1332 until he died in 1376.[93] He erected a large sundial on the mosque's northern minaret in 1371, now lost. A replica was installed in its place in the modern period.[94][95] The Minaret of Jesus was burnt down in a fire in 1392.[96]

The Mongol conqueror Timur besieged Damascus in 1400. He ordered the burning of the city on 17 March 1401, and the fire ravaged the Umayyad Mosque. The eastern minaret was reduced to rubble, and the central dome collapsed.[97] Another fire damaged the mosque in October 1479,[98][99] causing the Mamluk sultan Qaitbay (r. 1468–1496 ) to sponsor repair works. This included the reconstruction of the southwestern minaret in 1488.[100][101][102]

Ottoman era

[سنواريو]
1842 daguerreotype by Joseph-Philibert Girault de Prangey (the earliest photography of the site)
1862 photograph of the main prayer hall facade, from the courtyard looking south-east, with the Minaret of Isa in the background

Damascus was conquered from the Mamluks by the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim I in 1516. The first Friday prayer performed in Selim's name in the Umayyad Mosque was attended by the sultan himself.[103][104] The Ottomans used an endowment system (waqf) for religious sites as a means to link the local population with the central authority. The waqf of the Umayyad Mosque was the largest in the city, employing 596 people. Supervisory and clerical positions were reserved for Ottoman officials while religious offices were held mostly by members of the local ulema (Muslim scholars).[105] Although the awqaf (plural of "waqf") were taxed, the waqf of the Umayyad Mosque was exempted from taxation.[106] In 1518, the Ottoman governor of Damascus and supervisor of the mosque's waqf, Janbirdi al-Ghazali, had the mosque repaired and redecorated as part of his architectural reconstruction program for the city.[107]

The prominent Sufi scholar Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi taught regularly at the Umayyad Mosque starting in 1661.[108]

In 1743 or 1744 restoration works were carried out under the orders of the treasurer of Damascus, Fathi al-Daftari.[109] The governor of Damascus, As'ad Pasha al-Azm, had the mosque redecorated in 1750 and 1755.[110] The mosque was severely damaged in the late 1759 earthquakes.[111] In early 1760, Sultan Mustafa III dispatched a team led by Mustafa Sabanikhzade and a leading architect to oversee the more than year-long repairs, the funds for which were provided by the sultan and from the estates of many Damascenes who had perished in the plague that year.[112] The governor Uthman Pasha al-Kurji built a pool in the courtyard of the Umayyad Mosque whose water was supplied by the Qanawat aqueduct in 1769 or 1770.[113]

The khatib (preacher) of the Umayyad Mosque was one of the three most influential religious officials in Ottoman Damascus, the other two being the Hanafi mufti and the naqib al-ashraf. He served as a link between the imperial government in Constantinople and the elites of Damascus and was a key shaper of public opinion in the city. By 1650 members of the mercantile and scholarly Mahasini family held the position, retaining it for much of the 18th and early and mid-19th centuries, partly due to their links with the Shaykh al-Islam in the imperial capital. In the late 19th century, another Damascene family with connections in Constantinople, the Khatibs, vied for the position. After the death of the Mahasini preacher in 1869, a member of the Khatibs succeeded him.[114]

The mosque's prayer hall was once again ravaged and partly destroyed by fire in 1893.[115][116] A laborer engaging in repair work accidentally started the fire when he was smoking his nargila (water pipe).[116] The fire destroyed the inner fabric of the prayer hall and caused the collapse of the mosque's central dome. The Ottomans fully restored the mosque, largely maintaining the original layout.[117] The restoration process, which lasted nine years, did not attempt to reproduce the original decoration.[116] The central mihrab was replaced and the dome was rebuilt in a contemporary Ottoman style. The rubble and damaged elements from the fire, including some of the original pillars and mosaic remains, were simply disposed of.[116][39][23]

The mosque after the 1893 fire (photo from 1898)

Until 1899 the mosque's library included the "very old" Qubbat al-Khazna collection;[118] "most of its holdings were given to the German emperor Wilhelm II and only a few pieces kept for the National Archives in Damascus."[119]

It is the burial place of the first three officers of the Ottoman Aviation Squadrons who died on mission, in this case the Istanbul-Cairo expedition in 1914. They were Navy Lieutenant Fethi Bey and his navigator, Artillery First Lieutenant Sadık Bey and Artillery Second Lieutenant Nuri Bey.

Modern era

[سنواريو]
The ceiling above the main mihrab and the interior of Qubbat Al-Nasr (Dome of the Eagle)

The Umayyad Mosque underwent major restorations in 1929 during the French Mandate over Syria and in 1954 and 1963 under the Syrian Republic.[120]

In the سانچو:Decade and in the early سانچو:Decade, Syrian president Hafez al-Assad ordered a wide-scale renovation of the mosque.[121] The methods and concepts of Assad's restoration project were heavily criticized by UNESCO,[وضاحت گهربل] but the general approach in Syria was that the mosque was more of a symbolic monument rather than a historical one and thus, its renovation could only enhance the mosque's symbolism.[122]

In سانچو:Decade, Mohammed Burhanuddin constructed a zarih of the martyrs of the Battle of Karbala,[123] whose heads were brought to the Mosque after their defeat at the hands of the then Umayyad caliph, Yazid I.

In 2001, Pope John Paul II visited the mosque, primarily to visit the relics of John the Baptist. It was the first time a pope paid a visit to a mosque.[124]

Worshippers congregate at the Umayyad Mosque on 14 December 2024, celebrating the first Friday prayers after the fall of the Assad government

On March 15, 2011, the first significant protests related to the Arab Spring and eventually the Syrian civil war began at the Umayyad Mosque when 40–50 worshippers gathered outside the complex and chanted pro-democracy slogans. Syrian security forces swiftly quelled the protests and cordoned off the area during Friday prayers to prevent large-scale demonstrations.[125][126] After the fall of the Assad regime and the victory of opposition forces in the civil war, Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham leader Ahmed al-Sharaa gave a victory speech from Umayyad Mosque during which he declared a new era in Syria's history.[127]

فنِ تعمير

[سنواريو]

احاطو

[سنواريو]

Three arcades make up the interior space of the sanctuary. They are parallel to the direction of prayer which is towards Mecca. The arcades are supported by two rows of stone Corinthian columns. Each of the arcades contain two levels. The first level consists of large semi-circular arches, while the second level is made up of double arches. This pattern is the same repeated by the arcades of the courtyard. The three interior arcades intersect in the center of the sanctuary with a larger, higher arcade that is perpendicular to the qibla wall and faces the mihrab and the minbar.[128] The central transept divides the arcades into two halves each with eleven arches. The entire sanctuary measures 136 meters (446 ft) by 37 meters (121 ft) and takes up the southern half of the mosque complex.[129]

Four mihrabs line the sanctuary's rear wall, the main one being the Great Mihrab which is located roughly at the center of the wall. The Mihrab of the Sahaba, named after the sahaba ('companions of Muhammad') is situated in the eastern half. According to the 9th-century Muslim engineer Musa ibn Shakir, the latter mihrab was built during the mosque's initial construction and it became the third niche-formed mihrab in Islam's history.[129]

The central dome of the mosque is known as the 'Dome of the Eagle' (Qubbat an-Nisr) and located atop the center of the prayer hall.[130] The original wooden dome was replaced by one built of stone following the 1893 fire. It receives its name because it is thought to resemble an eagle, with the dome itself being the eagle's head while the eastern and western flanks of the prayer hall represent the wings.[131] With a height of 36 meters (118 ft), the dome rests on an octagonal substructure with two arched windows on each of its sides. It is supported by the central interior arcade and has openings along its parameter.[128]

Panoramic view of the prayer hall, with the mihrab in the center (looking south) and the Shrine of John the Baptist visible to the left

مذهبي اهميت

[سنواريو]
Shrine purportedly housing the head of the Prophet Yahya (John the Baptist)

According to some, the mosque is the fourth holiest site of Islam.[132][133][134] A Christian tradition dating to the 6th century developed an association between the former cathedral structure and John the Baptist. Legend had it that his head was buried there.[135] Ibn al-Faqih relays that during the construction of the mosque, workers found a cave-chapel which had a box containing the head of John the Baptist, known as Yahya ibn Zakariya by Muslims. Upon learning of that and examining it, al-Walid I ordered the head buried under a specific pillar in the mosque that was later inlaid with marble.[136]

Left: The location where Al-Husayn's head was kept for display. Right: Purported tomb of Al-Husayn's head.

According to one hadith reported by Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj,[137] the Great Mosque of Damascus is the site where Jesus will descend from heaven at his Second Coming, appearing on a "white minaret".[138][139] Most Muslim theologians interpret this passage as symbolic rather than literal.[138] In a study of Muslim sources, William Richard Oakes suggests that some aspects of this hadith could date from the late Umayyad period, when the mosque was built, rather than from Muhammad's time, when Damascus had not yet been conquered by Muslims.[139]

Two shrines commemorating the Islamic prophet Muhammad's grandson Husayn ibn Ali, whose martyrdom is also compared in Shi'a tradition to that of John the Baptist,[140] exist within the building premises.[141]

وڌيڪ ڏسو

[سنواريو]

نوٽ

[سنواريو]

سانچو:NOTESLIST

ڪتابيات

[سنواريو]

حوالا

[سنواريو]
  1. ↑ Kuban, Doğan (1974). The Mosque and Its Early Development (انگريزي ۾). BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-03813-4.
  2. 1 2 Flood 2001, pp. 4–8.
  3. ↑ Macaulay-Lewis, Elizabeth. "The Great Mosque of Damascus". Khan Academy.
  4. 1 2 Burns 2007, p. 16.
  5. ↑ Darke 2010, p. 72.
  6. ↑ Burns 2009, pp. 104–105.
  7. 1 2 Grafman & Rosen-Ayalon 1999, p. 7.
  8. 1 2 Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 22.
  9. 1 2 Burns 2007, p. 112-114.
  10. ↑ Elisséeff 1965, p. 800.
  11. ↑ Ching, Francis (2017). A Global History of Architecture 3rd edition. John Wiley & Sons. ص. 313. ISBN 9781118981337.
  12. 1 2 3 Flood 2001, p. 2.
  13. 1 2 Rudolff 2006, p. 177.
  14. 1 2 Takeo Kamiya (2004). "Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria". Eurasia News. محفوظ ڪيل مان اصل نسخي کان سيپٽمبر 14, 2019 تي محفوظ ڪيل. ڊسمبر 31, 2015 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  15. 1 2 Blankinship 1994, p. 82.
  16. 1 2 Elisséeff 1965, p. 801.
  17. 1 2 Wolff 2007, p. 57.
  18. ↑ Flood 2001, pp. 2–3.
  19. ↑ Flood 2001, pp. 244–245.
  20. ↑ Marozzi, Justin (2019). Islamic Empires: Fifteen Cities that Define a Civilization (انگريزي ۾). Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-241-19905-3.
  21. 1 2 Flood 2001, pp. 4–5.
  22. 1 2 3 4 Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 24.
  23. 1 2 3 4 Enderlein 2011, p. 71.
  24. ↑ Ali 1999, p. 30.
  25. ↑ Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 23.
  26. ↑ Grafman & Rosen-Ayalon 1999, pp. 10–11.
  27. ↑ Grafman & Rosen-Ayalon 1999, pp. 8–9.
  28. 1 2 Hillenbrand, Robert; Burton-Page, J.; Freeman-Greenville, G.S.P. (1960–2007). "Manār, Manāra". ۾ Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (مرتب). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill. ISBN 9789004161214. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (مدد)
  29. ↑ M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, مرتب (2009). "Minaret". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195309911.
  30. ↑ M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, مرتب (2009). "Damascus". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195309911.
  31. ↑ Burns 2009, pp. 103.
  32. 1 2 3 Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 25.
  33. ↑ Burns 2007, p. 115.
  34. ↑ Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 25-26.
  35. ↑ Burns 2009, pp. 102–103.
  36. ↑ Rosenwein 2014, p. 56.
  37. ↑ Kleiner 2013, p. 264.
  38. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, p. 26.
  39. 1 2 Flood 1997.
  40. 1 2 Burns 2009, p. 102.
  41. ↑ McKenzie 2007, pp. 366–367.
  42. ↑ Flood 2001, pp. 17–25.
  43. 1 2 Schibille, Nadine; Lehuédé, Patrice; Biron, Isabelle; Brunswic, Léa; Blondeau, Étienne; Gratuze, Bernard (November 2022). "Origins and manufacture of the glass mosaic tesserae from the great Umayyad Mosque in Damascus" (en ۾). Journal of Archaeological Science 147. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2022.105675. ISSN 0305-4403. Bibcode: 2022JArSc.147j5675S.
  44. ↑ McKenzie 2007, p. 367.
  45. ↑ Flood 2001, pp. 21–23.
  46. ↑ McKenzie 2007, p. 366.
  47. ↑ Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001, pp. 25–26.
  48. ↑ Flood 2001, pp. 21–22.
  49. ↑ Flood 2001, pp. 22–24.
  50. ↑ Flood 2001, p. 24.
  51. ↑ McKenzie 2007, pp. 365–367.
  52. 1 2 Flood 2001, p. 33.
  53. ↑ Georgopoulou, Maria (2017). "Geography, cartography and the architecture of power in the mosaics of the Great Mosque of Damascus". ۾ Anderson, Christy; Koehler, Karen (مرتب). The Built Surface: Architecture and the Visual Arts from Antiquity to the Enlightenment (انگريزي ۾). جلد 1. Routledge. ص. 50. ISBN 978-1-351-74584-0. محفوظ ڪيل مان اصل نسخي کان جُولاءِ 19, 2023 تي محفوظ ڪيل. اپريل 10, 2023 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  54. 1 2 Flood 2001, p. 31.
  55. ↑ Birsch, Klaus (1988). "Observations on the Iconography of the Mosaics in the Great Mosque at Damascus". ۾ Soucek, Priscilla Parsons (مرتب). Content and Context of Visual Arts in the Islamic World: Papers from a Colloquium in Memory of Richard Ettinghausen, Institute of Fine Arts, New York University, 2-4 April 1980 (انگريزي ۾). University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ص. 18.
  56. ↑ Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2011). Islamic Gardens and Landscapes (انگريزي ۾). University of Pennsylvania Press. ص. 95. ISBN 978-0-8122-0728-6. محفوظ ڪيل مان اصل نسخي کان جُولاءِ 19, 2023 تي محفوظ ڪيل. اپريل 10, 2023 تي حاصل ڪيل.
  57. ↑ Flood 2001, pp. 25–33.
  58. ↑ McKenzie 2007, pp. 80, 362–367.
  59. ↑ McKenzie 2007, pp. 112, 364–365.
  60. ↑ McKenzie 2007, pp. 362–367.
  61. ↑ Fehérvári 1993, pp. 8–9.
  62. 1 2 3 4 5 Flood 1997, p. 64.
  63. ↑ Flood 1997, p. 64-66.
  64. ↑ Flood 2001, p. 52.
  65. 1 2 Flood 2001, pp. 124–126.
  66. 1 2 3 4 5 Burns 2007, pp. 131–132.
  67. ↑ Burns 2007, pp. 132, 286 (note 10).
  68. ↑ Rudolff 2006, p. 162.
  69. ↑ Flood 2001, pp. 124–126, Some information used in the article is provided by the footnotes of this source: File:Dome of the Clocks, Umayyad Mosque.jpg.
  70. ↑ Flood 2001, pp. 118–121.
  71. ↑ Flood 2001, p. 118-121.
  72. ↑ Burns 2007, p. 139.
  73. ↑ Burns 2007, p. 140.
  74. ↑ Burns 2007, p. 142.
  75. ↑ Flood 1997, p. 73.
  76. ↑ Burns 2007, pp. 141–142.
  77. ↑ Burns 2007, pp. 148–149.
  78. ↑ Burns 2007, p. 147.
  79. ↑ Burns 2007, p. 157.
  80. ↑ Rudolff 2006, p. 175.
  81. ↑ Flood 2001, p. 114.
  82. ↑ Flood 2001, pp. 117–118.
  83. ↑ Burns 2007, pp. 176–177.
  84. ↑ Burns 2007, p. 187.
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  131. ↑ Darke 2010, p. 94.
  132. ↑ Dumper & Stanley 2007, pp. 119–126.
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  141. ↑ Michael Press (مارچ 2014). "Hussein's Head and Importance of Cultural Heritage". American School of Oriental Research. اصل نسخو مان مَئي 17, 2020 تي محفوظ ڪيل. مَئي 17, 2020 تي حاصل ڪيل.

ٻاهريان ڳنڍڻا

[سنواريو]

سانچو:Mosques in Syria سانچو:Damascus سانچو:Umayyad Caliphate topics

  1. ↑ The best-preserved sections of the mosaics today are located on the inner and outer facades of the western portico (arches) of the courtyard, as well as in the vestibule of the western entrance. Restitutions carried out to other sections after 1963 have been heavily criticized for their inauthenticity. Areas of original mosaic work generally appear darker today than areas of new (restored) mosaics. A large stretch of mosaics along the inner wall of the western portico, sometimes known as the "Barada panel", contains original Umayyad fragments, late 13th-century fragments from the time of the Mamluk sultan Baybars, and post-1963 restorations. The outer façade of the prayer hall's main entrance contains only limited fragments of original mosaic (in darker shades), with the rest restored after 1963. Some damaged remains of mosaics on the interior façade of this entrance, inside the prayer hall, date from a late 11th-century Seljuk-era restoration.[34][35]
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